476 A.D.: The fall of Rome

Nothing may be more significant to the history of asthma and respiratory therapy, or medicine in general, than the fall of the mighty Roman Empire.  For it is a fact that as Rome fell, so too did all knowledge.  As all knowledge fell, so too did knowledge of science, philosophy, and medicine.

There was a time when Romans believed their empire would last forever.  In a sense, they may even have taken it for granted.  The reason for the decline is still being debated to this day, although the following are often credited:  (5, page 41-2)

1. Rome was too large to be managed.  Rome was so spread out it was difficult to communicate  with people and inspire them to join the military, participate in government, or create industry.  
2. Christianity distracted leaders from problems of the empire, which required intense concentration to remedy.  
3. Able and educated men became Bishops rather than become military leaders in a defunct military or become governors in a nation that was falling apart.  Fixing the government seemed a hopeless task.  
4. Population declined markedly between 250-400 A.D. mainly due to the bubonic plague.
5. Rome had a weak economy, weakened more by population decline.  The economy worsened as markets shrank, and international trade declined.  
6. The inability to form a industrial technology to support nation (no specialization)
7. Regions became more dependent on themselves, weakening the whole (the Empire)
8. Taxes were high, and an alienated populace didn't want to pay them
9. Slavery.  Before 200 A.D. there were wars and slaves captured to do the work.  When wars were no longer needed, the number of slaves declined, yet by then Roman aristocracrats were so spoiled they were too lazy to do the work themselves

Many scholars provide most of the blame for the fall of Rome, and eventually the decline of science and medicine, to the rise of Christianity, which started in Rome as a secret society and grew to be a credible institution. 

Yet Historian  Edward Withington claims this theory is far overblown.  He said:  (1, page 119)

It must be admitted that the triumph of our holy religion, though by no means so responsible for the decline of medicine as is sometimes asserted, nevertheless tended to hasten than to hinder the downfall; but by means of one great institution it has, in the long run, done far more to further the healing art than it ever did to injure it."

Withington explains that various Christians, out of their good hearts, established some of the world's first hospitals and even an ambulance service.  He said:

"There is, I believe, no certain evidence of any medical institution supported by the voluntary contributions of the people, or by private munificence, till we come to the Christian days.  The primitive Church, as we learn from the Acts of the Apostles, cared for it's poor from the earliest time, but we find no definite notice of any special buildings for the reception of the sick till the close of the fourth century.  St. Jerome, writing about 400 A.D., says, that Fabiola, a noble Roman lady and his own friend, was the first to build a hospital."

 Withington proceeds to list various Christian hospitals. (1, page 119)

Christianity enveloped western Europe, and in 476 A.D., German barbarians crushed Rome to a pulp, destroying libraries and places of learning. Germans and Christians intentionally cast away all "the gifts of Athens and Alexandria," because the material world that evolved through technology was the antithesis of an eternal life with God in heaven. (2, page 84)

William Osler, in a 1913 lecture at Yale, said:

"Knowledge other than that which made a man 'wise unto salvation' was useless.  All that was necessary was contained in the Bible or taught by the Church.  This simple creed brought consolation thousands and illumined the lives of some of the noblest of men.  But 'in seeking a heavenly home man lost his bearing upon earth.'" (2, page 85?)

Other historians provide most of the blame for the fall of Rome on slavery.  In the early days of Rome there were only a few slaves, with most of them working on farms.  Most Romans were farmers in these days, and they were the people recruited to fight wars.  As Rome continued to win wars, the number of slaves skyrocketed.  It got to the point that there were more slaves than Romans who work for hire.  It got to the point that there were even more foreigners than Romans fighting Roman wars, according to historian Harold Johnston.  (6, page 87)

The country was almost completely run by foreigners, many of whom were better educated than their Roman masters.  Johnston explains said:. (6, page 87)

Ruinous as were the economic results of slavery, the moral effects were no less destructive. It is to slavery more than to anything else that is due the change in the character of the Romans in the first century of the Empire. With slaves swarming in their houses, ministering to their luxury, pandering to their appetites, directing their amusements, managing their business, and even educating their children, it is no wonder that the old Roman virtues of simplicity, frugality, and temperance declined and perished. And with the passing of Roman manhood into oriental effeminacy began the passing of Roman sway over the civilized world.

You can see how easy it was for the average Roman to become dependent on the slaves.  It got to the point that when the economy collapsed, it was difficult to get the average Roman excited about doing the work.

By the beginning of the 5th century German Barbarians were allowed to live in peace with the Romans in Rome.  So between slaves and Germans, foreigners far outnumbered Romans.  So, in 476 A.D., when the German Barbarians attacked Rome, there was little the natural born citizens of Rome could do to stop them.

These barbarians wanted to completely demolish Rome and all it stood for, and so they destroyed the libraries and places of learning.  While watching these places burn, the Germans were watching the demise of all knowledge.  It would all be lost for over a thousand years.

References:

1. Withington, Edward Theodore, "Medical History from the Earliest Times: A Popular History of the Art of Healing," 1894, London, The Scientific Press. 
2. Osler, William Henry, "The Evolution of Modern Medicine: A series of lectures delivered at Yale..." page 85
3. Meryon, "
4. Cantor, Norman F, "The Civilization of the Middle Ages: A Completely Revised and Expanded Edition of Medieval History," 1993, first edition, Harper Collins Publishers
5. Cantor, Norman, "The Civilization of the Middle Ages: A Completely Revised and expanded Edition of Medieval history: The Life and Deal of a Civilization," 1993, Harper Collins Publishers, New York
6. Johnston, Harold Whetstone, "The Private Life of Romans," 1908, Chicago, Atlanta, New York, Scott, Foresman and company

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320-400: Oribasius preserves Galen's work

Figure 1 -- Julian

In 320 A.D., Oribasius was born in Pergamum, the hometown of Galen, and perhaps it's for this reason he fell in love with the writings of the former. Through his voluminous writings he may be partially responsible for Galen becoming a medicinal god to medieval physicians.

This is especially important because the physicians that immediately followed Galen, including Serenus Sammonicus (died 211 A.D.) and Marcellus Empiricus (4th or 5th century), wrote nothing of Galen, said historian John Watson.  (8, page 173)

Constantine (272-337) was Roman Emperor from 306-337, and during his reign he declared the national religion was Catholicism. This was good in a way, because it helped to clean up some of the problems that ailed Rome.  It encouraged people to develop morals and values that were necessary to clean up the fabric of life. It encouraged people to be humble, and to be happy living a simple life with little, or remote, opportunity for advancement.

The Christian Bible encouraged each man to marry one woman, and to be faithful to that one woman.  We could debate the intent of this, although for our purposes it was probably partly for hygienic purposes to prevent the spread of disease.  It was also done because people probably realized that children are more likely to grow into productive members of society in stable families with both male and female role models.

Basically, Christianity encouraged purity and cleanliness in an attempt to prevent the spread of disease.  It was also an attempt to encourage each person to be kind and generous to their neighbors. It likewise encouraged businessmen to be honest in their dealings.

Yet this happened at the expense of wealth and opportunity.  It came at the expense of philosophy and medicine.  The Christian priests believed that wisdom and wealth were the antithesis of faith, and instead people were encouraged to work hard and to live humbly and to appreciate poverty and depravity as a gift from God. The reward for such hard work and humility was eternal life with Jesus in Heaven. All that was needed to maintain health and order was faith in the Lord. He was the King, and He was the Healer.

Figure 2 --Zeno

In 337 A.D. Constantine died, and Julian came to the throne.  Julian wanted to end the reign of Christianity in Rome, and to do this he hired the services of the physician Zeno. Of this, medical historian Thomas Bradford wrote:

After Constantine had declared Christianity the true religion, came Julian who attempted to overthrow its teachings and re-establish paganism. One of the first of his imperial acts was to endeavor to revive the ancient institutions of Alexandria. This mission was entrusted to a physician of Cyprus, named Zeno (at Alexandria). He went thither, but most of the inhabitants were Christians, and instead of proclaiming his mission, he kept himself quiet, and being really an illustrious member of the medical profession, was soon able to surround himself with numerous disciples, among whom were Jonicus and Oribasius. Zeno (who lived in the 4th century) left certain treatises, but they are lost. He is described as being the most famous teacher and practitioner of that time, though his fame seems to have originated in being able to have educated such illustrious pupils.(6, page 45)

Jonicus went on to become a very skilled physician in the 4th century.  He became very knowledgeable of anatomy, and "so great was his knowledge of pharmacology that it was said that none its secrets were withheld from him."  (6, page 45-46)

Yet it was Oribasius who would have the greatest impact on medicine.   He was a pagan and a sophist, "descended from parents of good condition.  He made quick progress of the liberal arts, which greatly conduce to virtue," wrote a good friend of his, Eunapius. (3, page 387)

Oribasius was also a "precocious" student during the reign of Constantine and his son Constantius (who was close to the age of Oribasius).  He studied at the school of Alexandria, and it was here he became physician and good friend to the future emperor Julian.  (1, page 175)

Oribasius would also go on to become one of the most famous philosophers of his time.  (6, page 46)

Oribasius and Julian had a lot in common.  As they became close friends early in life, they "were of similar taste, and were both devoted to the ancient religion (which was paganism)." (6, page46)

The two friends would go on to greatly benefit one another.  Many believe Oribasius taught Julian philosophical skills that were later necessary to be king. And Julian encouraged his friend to write a synopsis of the works of Galen. (1, page 175)

Oribasius ended up spending the next several years enveloped in research regarding ancient physicians, particularly on the works of Hippocrates and Galen. He ended up writing a 70 book synopsis (some say it was 72 books) on the writings of both physicians, and much of his works were plagiarized from their works. Time has destroyed three quarters of his work, yet what remains is "of great historical value." (4, page 129)(6, page 46)

Rather than call him a plagiarizer, historian Fielding Hudson Garrison, in his book, "An Introduction to the history of medicine...  (5, page 111)

...preferred to describe him as a torch-bearer of knowledge rather than as an original writer, but his compilations are highly valued by scholars in that he always gives his authorities, and, so far as is known, quotes them exactly.  (5, page 111)

In other words, if it were not for the works of Oribasis, many of the works he copied would have been lost. (5, page 111)

Julian, in his 277 A.D. Letter to Athenians, according to Wilmer Cave Wright...

...refers to a 'certain physician" who had been allowed by Constantius (see figure 3) to accompany him to Milan when he was summoned there to be made Caesar. Oribasius went with Julian to Gaul, and there is preserved by Photius a letter from him to Julian mentioning their sojourn there together; but we do not know whether he went on the expedition to Persia.  When Eunapius says that Oribasius "made Julian Emperor," he probably means not so much that Oribasius was an accomplice in the plot to put Julian on the throne, though he does in fact, in his Life of Maximus, speak of Oribasius as the Caesar's "accomplice," but rather that the physician, by his virtuous teachings, had fitted Julian for the position. The historians at any rate are silent as to the connivance of Oribasius. It was probably in 358 that Julian wrote his extant letter to Oribasius, when the latter was editing an epitome of GaFen. Oribasius was with him in Antioch on the way to Persia, and is no doubt one of the seven persons whom Julian mentions in Misopogon 354 c as newcomers to Antioch, and out of sympathy with its frivolous and ungodly citizens. (7, pages 337-338)

Julian at one point named his friend Oribasius "quaestor (public official who managed financial affairs of the state) of Constantinople", and was later with Julian as his personal physician as the Emperor traveled into Persia. (6, page 46)

In 363 Julian was killed in a war with the Parthinans, and he died, of his mortal wounds, in the arms of his best friend Oribasius.  (2, page 214) (6, page 46)(3, page 387)

Perhaps due to his opposition to Christianity, Christian emperors who took over the reigns of the empire exiled Oribasius, spared him death for being a pagan, and exiled him to live among the Barbarians (it is unknown who the Barbarians were).(3, page 387)(6, page 46)

Much of what we know about Oribasius (much of what is written above) comes from his friend, and fellow exiled pagan physician Eunapius. It is believed that Eunapius was born in 347 A.D. in Sardis, studied there under the pagan sophist (Greek teacher of philosophy, rhetoric and arts) Chrysanthius (of the 4th century), and went to Athens to learn rhetoric from Prohaeresius (272-367).  Like Julian and Oribasius, he was also a Pagan, and was opposed to Christianity, and this theme was emphasized in his writings.

While Oribasius was still alive, Eunapius published a book, "The Lives of the Sophists," honoring the world's 23 greatest philosophers, of whom, according to Eunapius, Oribasius was one. (3,page 387)

Eunapius said that Oribasius was also "the most skillful in medicine, and the most amiable in conversation."  (6, page 46)(7, pages 533, 537)

Eunapius explained that while in exile... (3, page 387)

...he (Oribasius) exhibited proofs of his abilities restoring some to health from long and grievous sicknesses, and recovering others from the very gates of death. Whereby, in a short time, he gained great esteem with the barbarian kings, and was revered with almost divine honours. The Romans were very desirous of his presence with them; and the emperors, changing their former counsels, gave him leave to return; which he was very willing to do out of regard to his native country. (3, page 387)(7, page 535)

Eunapius said Oribasius married a rich woman, had four children, "had his estate restored to him out of the public treasury, the emperors revoking their former sentence against him as unjust."  (3, page 387)(6, page 46)(7, page 535)

Eunapius said Oribasius then "recovered his original fortune from the public treasure."  (7, page 537)

His legend lived on through his voluminous writings. He was partially responsible for keeping the works of Galen in the minds of medieval physicians, as his works were referenced by future physicians, including many who would go on to write about asthma and other respiratory disorders.

Because of his association with Julian, and later due to his skills as a physician, "Oribasius and his family lived a very comfortably; if he met with some difficulties, as Eunapius intimates, they could not be for any long duration... it hence appears that Oribasius reached a good old age."  (3, page 387)

He died sometime around 400 A.D.

There is one more thing I'd like to say about Oribasius and the era of which he lived.  While he and Julian tried to draw Rome back to its Pagan roots, "the majority of the people of the Roman empire were Christians, and the laws were favourable to them," said radBradford (3, page 387) 

People who claimed that "diseases had a real cause" were ignored, and those who practiced medicine were persecuted, said Bradford (6, page 48-49)

Figure 3 --
Marble bust of Constantine.
His father was Constantius, who lived from 250-306,
and was Roman Emperor from 293-305.
Constantine lived from 272-337,
and was Roman Emperor from 306-337.
He was the father of the next Constantius,
also known as Constantine II,
who lived from 316-340,
and was Roman Emperor from 317-340.
Julian lived from 331-363,
and was Roman Emperor from 355-363.

All the temples of Aesculapius, the Asclepions, since they were no longer needed, were "abolished" by Constantine, said Bradford.  Of these, Bradford said:

They were replaced by hospitals and asylums placed under the care of the church. These were richly endowed with lands and money... The empress—mother of Constantine—Helena, was foremost in this charitable work, and was assisted by many high-born ladies. Orphan asylums, foundling homes and abodes were organized for the poor. There were also parabolani, out-door visitors to the sick poor, especially in time of pestilence. But noble as was this great charity of the church, it labored under the defect that in place of the skillful physicians of the Asclepions, they were now only well meaning but unskillful priests, who really knew nothing about disease. The sick were really under the care of nurses; and hence, to hide their inability and ignorance, these nurse priests proclaimed that prayer and relics of saints and other ceremonials were better for thecure of the sick than the skill of the earthly physician. Those having charge of the hospitals were called the nosocomi... With the Asclepions closed, the schools of philosophy prohibited, learning branded as magic and punished as treason, philosophy driven into exile, and as a class exterminated" (6, page 49)

Bradford likewise explains that knowledgeable and skillful physicians "were replaced by well meaning but unskillful priests."  (6, page 49)

Diseases were no longer caused by an imbalance of the humors, so knowledge of anatomy, pathology, and philosophy were no longer needed.  Instead of  the sick seeking the cures of physicians, they sought the miracles of priests. (6, page 49)

Regardless, Paganism became extinct.  Oribasius was, therefore, the last of the Pagan physicians.  (4, page 129)

References:

1. Lawson, Russell M, "Science in the ancient world: an encyclopedia," 
2. Temkin, Owsei, "Hippocrates in a World of Pagans and Christians, 
3. Lardner, Nathaniel, transcribed by Andrew Kippis, "The works of Nathaniel Lardner in five volumes," 1815, pages 386-388
4. Withington, Edward, "Medical History from the earliest times," 1894
5. Garrison, Fielding Hudson, "An introduction to the history of medicine," 1921, Philadelphia and London, W.B. Saunders Company
6. Bradford, Thomas Lindsley, writer, Robert Ray Roth, editor, “Quiz questions on the history of medicine from the lectures of Thomas Lindley Bradford M.D.,” 1898, Philadelphia, Hohn Joseph McVey
7. Philostratus (the Athenian), Eunapius, "Lives of the Sophist," translated by Wilmer Cave Wright, 1922, London, G.P. Putnam's Sons
8. Watson, John, "The Medical Profession from the Earliest Times: an anniversary discourse delivered before the New York Academy of Medicine November 7, 1855," 1856, New York, Baker & Godwini

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1550 B.C.: Moses preaches good hygiene

Moses (12th and 13th century B.C.)
He is the father of hygiene therapy,
or prophylactic medicine.

While most people don't think of Moses in this light, he had a significant impact on health and healing. In fact, many medical historians give Moses credit as the father of preventative medicine.

Moses (sometimes referred to as Mesu, Mouses and Mosheh) was a Hebrew liberator, leader, lawgiver, profit and historian. He lived at the end of the 13th and early part of the 12th centuries before the birth of Christ.  (2)

The Bible records that his cradle was set into the Nile river by his Hebrew mother Jochebed when the Pharaoh ordered that all first born Hebrew sons be killed. Moses was rescued by the Pharoah's daughter, and adapted by the family of the Pharaoh.  He was then educated "in all the knowledge of the Egyptian priesthood, in which he became proficient," said medical historian Pierre Victor Renouard in 1856. (1, page 32)

Of interest here is that Egyptian priests were educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptian gods, as their studies included all the wisdom of the Sacred books, or the Hermetic books. This knowledge would have include mathematics, weights and measures, law, cosmology, religion, and medicine. So it is very likely that Moses was as adept at health and healing as he was at being a leader.

The Bible says that "One day, after Moses had grown up, he went out to where his own people were and watched them at their hard labor. He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his own people. Looking this way and that and seeing no one, he killed the Egyptian and hid him in the sand."

When Pharaoh learned of this, he tried to kill Moses, but Moses escaped to Midian.

Concerned about the Israelites, God sent Moses back to Egypt to free the Israelites. He allowed Moses to perform miracles before the Pharaoh to convince the king that Moses was sent by the Israelite God, and the Pharaoh sent for "wise men and sorcerers."

These wise men and sorcerers were the high priests, the Chief Priests of Egypt, who were learned in all the greatest magic of the gods. Pharaoh was convinced the power of the gods was more powerful than the god of the Israelites.

The Bible then says:

"So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and did just as the Lord commanded. Aaron threw his staff down in front of Pharaoh and his officials, and it became a snake. Pharaoh then summoned his wise men and sorcerers, and the Egyptian magicians also did the same thing by their secret arts. Each one threw down his staff and it became a snake. But Aaron's staff swallowed up their staffs. Yet Pharaoh's heart became hard and he would not listen to them, just as the Lord had said."

Moses lead the Israelites out of Egypt in what became known as the Exodus. He helped them escape the Pharaoh's army to Midian by creating an opening in the Red Sea.

God appeared to Moses once again in a burning brush on Mount Sinai. Thus, it was through Moses that God said:

"I will put none of these diseases upon thee, which I have brought upon the Egyptians: for I am the Lord that healeth thee." (Exodus 15:26)

And then God provided Moses with laws for the people of Israel to follow, including the ten commandments. The Catholic translation is as follows (translations may vary, although the basic idea is always the same):

1. I, the Lord, am your god.  You shall not have other gods besides me.
2. You shall not take the name of the Lord God in vain
3. Remember to keep holy the Lord's Day
4. Honor your father and your mother
5. You shall not kill
6. You shall not commit adultery
7. You shall not steal
8. You shall not bear false witness
9. You shall not covet your neighbor's wife
10. You shall not covet your neighbor's goods

Renouard explained that wisdom obtained while living among the Egyptians, along with wisdom learned from the Isrealite God, allowed Moses to lead the Hebrews to the promised land. He would have had knowledge of the Egyptian Pharmacopoeia, and known that their recipes would be hard to put together while traveling to the promised land.

So god appeared to him and encouraged him to educate the people in how to prevent disease, as opposed to treating it. In order to accomplish this, Moses, through the Lord, preached good hygiene. He encouraged the Hebrews to only eat the purest foods, such as the rabbit and hog, even though these animals were considered impure in Egypt. Perhaps, Renouard proclaims, this is evidence that Moses held "his own views other than those ascribed to him."

Medical historian Fielding Hudson Garrison said that the ultimate goal here was to prevent the people from getting sick. He inculcated the idea that it was especially important to wear clean clothing, and to wash and bathe, especially while traveling to foreign lands, and when touching strangers. He inculcated good hygiene when surrounded by sick people, and handling dead bodies or other unclean objects. He encouraged good hygiene during menstrual periods. He discouraged sexual perversion because sexual perversion was linked with illness. These were techniques of keeping people "pure" in order to avoid sickness. (4, page 60)

For an example Renouard refers us readers to the Bible, Numbers Chapter 15, which starts like this: And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying: (1, pages 32-33)

Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come into the land of your habitations, which I give unto you. And will make an offering by fire unto the Lord, a burnt offering, or a sacrifice in performing a vow, or in a freewill offering, or in your solemn feasts, to make a sweet savour unto the Lord, of the herd, or of the flock. (Numbers 15: 2-3)

Renouard also refers to Levaticus 11 and 12, which show God telling Moses what to teach the Israelites about what they should and should not do in order to maintain their health. Here is a small sample of what Moses said: 

The Lord said to Moses and Aaron, "say to the Israelites: 'Of all the animals that live on land, These are the ones you mayt eat: You may eat any animal that has a divided hoof and that chews the cud. "There are some that only chew the cud or only have a divided hoof, but you must not eat them. The camel, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is ceremonially unclean for you. The hyrax, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is unclean for you. The rabbit, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is unclean for you. And the pig, though it has a divided hoof, does not chew the cud; it is unclean for you. You must not eat their meat or touch their carcasses; they are unclean for you. Of all the creatures living in the water of the seas and the streams you may eat any that have fins and scales. But all creatures in the seas or streams that do not have fins and scales—whether among all the swarming things or among all the other living creatures in the water—you are to regard as unclean. And since you are to regard them as unclean, you must not eat their meat; you must regard their carcasses as unclean. Anything living in the water that does not have fins and scales is to be regarded as unclean by you. (Levaticus 11: 1-10)

The Lord said to Moses:

"You will make yourselves unclean by these; whoever touches their carcasses will be unclean till evening. Whoever picks up one of their carcasses must wash their clothes, and they will be unclean till evening." (Levaticus 11: 24)

He said:

"And if any beast, of which ye may eat, die; he that toucheth the carcase thereof shall be unclean until the even. And he that eateth of the carcase of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: he also that beareth the carcase of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even. And every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth shall be an abomination; it shall not be eaten." (Levaticus 11: 39-41)

And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If a woman have conceived seed, and born a man child: then she shall be unclean seven days; according to the days of the separation for her infirmity shall she be unclean. And in the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised. And she shall then continue in the blood of her purifying three and thirty days; she shall touch no hallowed thing, nor come into the sanctuary, until the days of her purifying be fulfilled. (Levaticus 12: 1-4)

Moses also makes a reference to healing:

The one who struck the blow will not be held liable if the other can get up and walk around outside with a staff; however, the guilty party must pay the injured person for any loss of time and see that the victim is completely healed.

“Anyone who beats their male or female slave with a rod must be punished if the slave dies as a direct result, but they are not to be punished if the slave recovers after a day or two, since the slave is their property. (Exodus 21: 19-21)

Thanks to Moses, the Hebrews were freed from the bonds and prejudices of Egyptian laws and tradition, said medical historian Theodor Puschmann in 1891. (3, page 28)

It was also thanks to Moses that the Jewish (and later the Christian) community was introduced to the method of good hygiene as a method of preventing disease.

Perhaps, said Puschman, it was this new found freedom that allowed Moses to encourage the Hebrews to eat some of the foods Egyptian gods forbade, such as rabbit and hog. Yet this may also have been a byproduct of the necessity of eating the foods that were available in the lands the Hebrews happened to be in at the time, for Moses surely wouldn't want his followers to starve on the way to the promised land due to Egyptian laws. (3, page 28)

Puschmann said this newfound freedom also allowed the Hebrews to be influenced by the people they came into contact with, such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, Chaldees, and Persians. This exposure further increased their medical knowledge as well. (3, page 28)

The Hebrews were able to adapt these new cultures and incorporate them into their own. For example, you no longer had to be a priest in order to be a physician. For the first time ever, anyone interested in learning could learn, and this meant anyone could become a doctor. (3, page 28)

This was perhaps a gift of the God of Israel.

1. Renouard, Pierce Victor, "History of Medicine: From it's origin to the 19th century," 1856, Cincinnati, Moore, Wistach, Keys and Co., page 26, chapter 1, "Medicine of the Antique Nation."
2. "Moses," Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10596a.htm, accessed 3/21/13
3. Puschmann, Theodor, translated by Evan H. Hare, "A history of medical education from the most remote to the most recdent times," 1891, London, H.K. Lewis
4. Garrison, Fielding Hudson, "An introduction to the history of medicine, with medical chronology, suggestions for study, and bibliographic data," 3rd edition, 1922, Philadelphia and London, W.B. Saunders Company