1700 B.C.: Hebrew Bible influences medicine

The Bible only has a few vague descriptions of diseases, and none of these vagaries refer to respiratory diseases such as asthma.  However, the Bible does show what life was like for asthmatics in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Jewish (Israelite, Hebrew) Community.

The Bible was probably written in the 1000 years that preceded the birth of Christ (10, page 511), although the information obtained in it goes back much farther.  Some experts estimate the Biblical date for the beginning of time as 4004 B.C.  

Now, before we delve into a discussion on the Biblical impact on history, we must first understand the Bible and the people who wrote it. You see, the style of writing at this time was pithy and allegorical, and they told truths about God, not so much about history.  For this reason, Biblical stories may allude to true events, and allude to scientific and medical achievements, yet not provide any detail to help historians paint a detailed picture.

The key to understanding the Bible is to understand the difference between truth and fact.  Simply put, something can be truthful without being factual.  For example, if you are trying to download a large file onto your computer and it is taking a long time, you might say that it is "taking a million years." You would be speaking the truth: the file is taking a long time to download.  Figurative language such as this communicates truth without relying totally on facts.

A good example from the Bible is the Bible saying that Adam lived 930 years.  Here again you have to consider the era in which the Bible was written.  People back then never even considered the idea of keeping track of a person's time in this world.  When the Bible says that Adam lived to be 930 years old, it is teaching the religious truth that he lived a long life, which is a sign of God's blessing.

Likewise, since the authors of the Bible, particularly the Old Testament, were recording stories that had previously been relayed by word of mouth from generation to generation, probably through prose, and probably around nighttime campfires, such stories are pithy.  They had to be pithy, because long stories would never be remembered in the days prior to writing.

So this is another cause of confusion regarding events recorded in the Bible.  Adam, for example, lived many years before his story was written, so there is no way of knowing exactly how long he lived.  Likewise, no one knows how long creation took, so the Bible makes it easy by summing these events into seven days

Okay, so that said, now we can get on with our history lesson.

Hebrew history is interesting because the people were nomads, meaning they had no home, or at least they were in search of a home.  Where they came from and why they left remains a mystery, and this is true of many of the societies that made their way to Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Because the Hebrews were nomads,  they lived among, and therefore were influenced, by the various cultures they came into contact with.  Among these cultures were those present in and around ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt.

The Babylonians believed that all disease was punishment from the gods, and some speculate this is why the Jews/ Hebrews likewise believed that their God, the only God, was responsible for causing all diseases and healing all diseases.  Through priests, who acted as mediators, the Hebrew God healed, or he allowed the prophets to heal.  (5, page 28)

The Hebrew were held captive in Egypt for several centuries prior to the exodus around 1550 B.C., and they were also held captive in Babylon around 604 B.C.  So there are various references to both the Mesopotamian and Egyptians medical beliefs, providing evidence that the early Jews were influenced by both.

Fielding Hudson Garrison, in his 1922 history of medicine, explains that:

In the Old Testament, disease is an expression of the wrath of God, to be removed only by moral reform, prayers and sacrifice; and it is God who confers both health and disease: 'I will put none of these diseases upon thee, which I have brought upon the Egyptians: for I am the Lord that healeth thee.' (7, page 57)(Exodus 15:26)

After God gave Moses the laws, the Lord said, "If you will obey me completely by doing what I consider right, and by keeping my commands, I will not punish you with any of the diseases that I brought on the Egyptians.  I am the Lord, the one who heals you." (Exodus 15: 26)

The Bible also refers to the Babylonian method of diagnosing through hepatoscopy, or inspecting the liver of sacrificial animals.  It is by this means they diagnose through divination or omens:

"For the king of Babylon stood at the Paring of the ways, at the head of the two ways to use divination:  he made his arrows bright, he consulted with images, he looked in the liver." (Ezekiel 21:21)

There are many references to God's ability to cause sickness and to heal, such as is mentioned by Job:

"God bandages the wounds he makes; his hands hurt you, and his hands heal you." (Job 5: 18) 

Abraham, who was labeled as "Father of Israel" by Israel's God, and who set the Israelites off on a quest for the land of Canaan, the promised land, mentions it sometime around the 2nd century B.C.:

Because of what had happened to Sarah, Abraham's wife, the Lord had made it impossible for any woman in Abimelech's palace to have children.  So Abraham prayed for Abimelech, and God healed his wife and his slave girls, so that they could have children. (Genesis: 20:17)

The prophet Jeremiah, who lived in the later part of the 7th century B.C., mentions it:

"But I will heal this city and its people and restore them to health.  I will show them abundant peace and security.  I will make Judah and Israel prosperous, and I will rebuilt them as they were before.  I will purify them from the sins that they have committed against me, and I will forgive their sins and their rebellion.  Jerusalem will be a source of joy, honor, and pride to me; and every nation in the world will fear and tremble when they hear about the good things that I do for the people of Jerusalem and about the prosperity that I bring to the city." (Jeremiah 33: 6)

"I will make you well again; I will heal your wounds." (Jeremiah 30:17 

Moses, who lived around 1550 B.C., mentions it as he calls for the Lord to heal his wife Miriam:

So Moses cried out to the Lord, "O God, heal her!"  (Numbers 12:13) 

Isaiah, who lived in the 8th century B.C., believed that not only was Assyria a great threat to Judah, but so too was the sin of the people.  In the Book of Isaiah, the Lord said of the Israelites:

"I have seen how they acted, but I will heal them. I will lead them and help them, and I will comfort those who mourn. I offer peace to all, both near and far! I will heal my people. But evil men are like the restless sea, whose waves never stop rolling in, bringing filth and muck. There is no safety for sinners," says the Lord. (Isaiah 57:18-21)

The prophet Hosea, who lived sometime before the fall of Samaria in 721 B.C., mentions it:

The people say, "let's return to the Lord!  He has hurt us, but he will be sure to heal us; he has wounded us, but he will bandage our wounds, won't he? In two or three days he will revive us, and we will live in his presence.  Let us try to know the Lord.  He will come to us as surely as the day dawns , as surely as the spring rains fall upon the earth." ( Hosea 6:1-3)

According to Garrison, priests were hygiene police, meaning that they made sure the people of Israel washed and purified their bodies in order to prevent the spread of disease.  Yet the priests, he says, did not act as physicians.  Instead, this task was left to the physician.  (7, page 57)

In the Bible, the various references to magi, or physicians, or high priests, are usually in reference to Egyptian or Babylonian healers  So there was definitely a crossover of the beliefs of the various ancient societies.

The Bible has perhaps the first recorded evidence that physicians existed in Egypt about 1,700  years before the birth of Christ.  When Jacob died, "Joseph commanded his servants, the physicians, to embalm him; and the physicians embalmed Israel, and forty days were fulfilled for him, for so are fulfilled the days of those that are embalmed." (1, page 26)(10, page 17)(7, page 57)(Genesis 50: 2)

Garrison explains that "the king Asa consulted physicians instead of the Lord and 'slept with his fathers' for his pains (II Chronicles 16: 12-13), or that if two men fight and one of them be injured to the extent of having to keep his bed, she or her 'shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall cause him to be thoroughly healed.(Exodus 21:19)" (7, page 57-58)

While the Bible makes no mention of asthma nor asthma remedies, it does make (perhaps) the first reference to a narcotic: (9, page 9)

During wheat harvest, Reuben went out into the fields and found some mandrake plants, which he brought to his mother Leah. Rachel said to Leah, “Please give me some of your son’s mandrakes.”  But she said to her, “Wasn’t it enough that you took away my husband? Will you take my son’s mandrakes too?” (Genesis 30: 14-15)

Mandrakes are a member of the nightshade family (solanaceae) of plants that, when ingested or inhaled, can make breathing easier and cause a hallucinogenic effect, easing pain and suffering.  The sonanaceae family of plants will play a significant role later in our asthma history, although it's doubtful (although possible) this was used as a remedy for dyspnea in the Biblical age.

Further reading:

• 5000-50 B.C.: Asthma in Ancient Egypt, and Physicians
• 5000-50 B.C.: Asthma in Ancient Egypt, and Eber Papyri 
• 2700 B.C.: Imhotep invents rational medicine

References:

1. Renouard, Pierce Victor, "History of Medicine: From it's origin to the 19th century," 1856, Cincinnati, Moore, Wistach, Keys and Co., page 26, chapter 1, "Medicine of the Antique Nation."
2. "Moses," Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10596a.htm, accessed 3/21/13
3. Puschmann, Theodor, translated by Evan H. Hare, "A history of medical education from the most remote to the most recdent times," 1891, London, H.K. Lewis
4. Dunglison, Robley, author, Richard James Dunglison, editor,  "History of Medicine from the earliest ages to the commencement of the nineteenth century," 1872, Philadelphia, Lindsay and Blakiston
5. Baas, John Herman, "Outlines in the history of medicine and the medical profession," translated by H.F. Handerson, 1889, New York, J.H. Vail and Co.
6. Wilder, Alexander, "History of Medicine: a brief outline of medical history and sects of physicians, from the earliest historic period; with an extended account of the new schools of the healing art in the nineteenth century, and especially a history of the american Eclectic practice of medicine, never before published," 1901, Maine, New England Eclectic Publishing, Co.
7. Garrison, Fielding Hudson, "An introduction to the history of medicine, with medical chronology, suggestions for study, and bibliographic data," 3rd edition, 1922, Philadelphia and London, W.B. Saunders Company
8. "The Assiatic Journal, for British adn foreign India, China and Australia," volume VIII, New Series, May-August, 1832, London, Parbury, Allen and Co.
9. Bradford, Thomas Lindsley, "Quiz questions on the history of medicine: from the lectures of Thomas Lindsley Bradford," edited by Robert Ray Roth, 1898, Philadelphia, John Joseph McVey
10. Prioreschi, Plinio, "A history of medicine: Primitive and ancient medicine," volume I, 1991, New York, The Edwin Mellen Press

1550 B.C.: Moses preaches good hygiene

Moses (12th and 13th century B.C.)
He is the father of hygiene therapy,
or prophylactic medicine.

While most people don't think of Moses in this light, he had a significant impact on health and healing. In fact, many medical historians give Moses credit as the father of preventative medicine.

Moses (sometimes referred to as Mesu, Mouses and Mosheh) was a Hebrew liberator, leader, lawgiver, profit and historian. He lived at the end of the 13th and early part of the 12th centuries before the birth of Christ.  (2)

The Bible records that his cradle was set into the Nile river by his Hebrew mother Jochebed when the Pharaoh ordered that all first born Hebrew sons be killed. Moses was rescued by the Pharoah's daughter, and adapted by the family of the Pharaoh.  He was then educated "in all the knowledge of the Egyptian priesthood, in which he became proficient," said medical historian Pierre Victor Renouard in 1856. (1, page 32)

Of interest here is that Egyptian priests were educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptian gods, as their studies included all the wisdom of the Sacred books, or the Hermetic books. This knowledge would have include mathematics, weights and measures, law, cosmology, religion, and medicine. So it is very likely that Moses was as adept at health and healing as he was at being a leader.

The Bible says that "One day, after Moses had grown up, he went out to where his own people were and watched them at their hard labor. He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his own people. Looking this way and that and seeing no one, he killed the Egyptian and hid him in the sand."

When Pharaoh learned of this, he tried to kill Moses, but Moses escaped to Midian.

Concerned about the Israelites, God sent Moses back to Egypt to free the Israelites. He allowed Moses to perform miracles before the Pharaoh to convince the king that Moses was sent by the Israelite God, and the Pharaoh sent for "wise men and sorcerers."

These wise men and sorcerers were the high priests, the Chief Priests of Egypt, who were learned in all the greatest magic of the gods. Pharaoh was convinced the power of the gods was more powerful than the god of the Israelites.

The Bible then says:

"So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and did just as the Lord commanded. Aaron threw his staff down in front of Pharaoh and his officials, and it became a snake. Pharaoh then summoned his wise men and sorcerers, and the Egyptian magicians also did the same thing by their secret arts. Each one threw down his staff and it became a snake. But Aaron's staff swallowed up their staffs. Yet Pharaoh's heart became hard and he would not listen to them, just as the Lord had said."

Moses lead the Israelites out of Egypt in what became known as the Exodus. He helped them escape the Pharaoh's army to Midian by creating an opening in the Red Sea.

God appeared to Moses once again in a burning brush on Mount Sinai. Thus, it was through Moses that God said:

"I will put none of these diseases upon thee, which I have brought upon the Egyptians: for I am the Lord that healeth thee." (Exodus 15:26)

And then God provided Moses with laws for the people of Israel to follow, including the ten commandments. The Catholic translation is as follows (translations may vary, although the basic idea is always the same):

1. I, the Lord, am your god.  You shall not have other gods besides me.
2. You shall not take the name of the Lord God in vain
3. Remember to keep holy the Lord's Day
4. Honor your father and your mother
5. You shall not kill
6. You shall not commit adultery
7. You shall not steal
8. You shall not bear false witness
9. You shall not covet your neighbor's wife
10. You shall not covet your neighbor's goods

Renouard explained that wisdom obtained while living among the Egyptians, along with wisdom learned from the Isrealite God, allowed Moses to lead the Hebrews to the promised land. He would have had knowledge of the Egyptian Pharmacopoeia, and known that their recipes would be hard to put together while traveling to the promised land.

So god appeared to him and encouraged him to educate the people in how to prevent disease, as opposed to treating it. In order to accomplish this, Moses, through the Lord, preached good hygiene. He encouraged the Hebrews to only eat the purest foods, such as the rabbit and hog, even though these animals were considered impure in Egypt. Perhaps, Renouard proclaims, this is evidence that Moses held "his own views other than those ascribed to him."

Medical historian Fielding Hudson Garrison said that the ultimate goal here was to prevent the people from getting sick. He inculcated the idea that it was especially important to wear clean clothing, and to wash and bathe, especially while traveling to foreign lands, and when touching strangers. He inculcated good hygiene when surrounded by sick people, and handling dead bodies or other unclean objects. He encouraged good hygiene during menstrual periods. He discouraged sexual perversion because sexual perversion was linked with illness. These were techniques of keeping people "pure" in order to avoid sickness. (4, page 60)

For an example Renouard refers us readers to the Bible, Numbers Chapter 15, which starts like this: And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying: (1, pages 32-33)

Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come into the land of your habitations, which I give unto you. And will make an offering by fire unto the Lord, a burnt offering, or a sacrifice in performing a vow, or in a freewill offering, or in your solemn feasts, to make a sweet savour unto the Lord, of the herd, or of the flock. (Numbers 15: 2-3)

Renouard also refers to Levaticus 11 and 12, which show God telling Moses what to teach the Israelites about what they should and should not do in order to maintain their health. Here is a small sample of what Moses said: 

The Lord said to Moses and Aaron, "say to the Israelites: 'Of all the animals that live on land, These are the ones you mayt eat: You may eat any animal that has a divided hoof and that chews the cud. "There are some that only chew the cud or only have a divided hoof, but you must not eat them. The camel, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is ceremonially unclean for you. The hyrax, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is unclean for you. The rabbit, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is unclean for you. And the pig, though it has a divided hoof, does not chew the cud; it is unclean for you. You must not eat their meat or touch their carcasses; they are unclean for you. Of all the creatures living in the water of the seas and the streams you may eat any that have fins and scales. But all creatures in the seas or streams that do not have fins and scales—whether among all the swarming things or among all the other living creatures in the water—you are to regard as unclean. And since you are to regard them as unclean, you must not eat their meat; you must regard their carcasses as unclean. Anything living in the water that does not have fins and scales is to be regarded as unclean by you. (Levaticus 11: 1-10)

The Lord said to Moses:

"You will make yourselves unclean by these; whoever touches their carcasses will be unclean till evening. Whoever picks up one of their carcasses must wash their clothes, and they will be unclean till evening." (Levaticus 11: 24)

He said:

"And if any beast, of which ye may eat, die; he that toucheth the carcase thereof shall be unclean until the even. And he that eateth of the carcase of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: he also that beareth the carcase of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even. And every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth shall be an abomination; it shall not be eaten." (Levaticus 11: 39-41)

And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If a woman have conceived seed, and born a man child: then she shall be unclean seven days; according to the days of the separation for her infirmity shall she be unclean. And in the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised. And she shall then continue in the blood of her purifying three and thirty days; she shall touch no hallowed thing, nor come into the sanctuary, until the days of her purifying be fulfilled. (Levaticus 12: 1-4)

Moses also makes a reference to healing:

The one who struck the blow will not be held liable if the other can get up and walk around outside with a staff; however, the guilty party must pay the injured person for any loss of time and see that the victim is completely healed.

“Anyone who beats their male or female slave with a rod must be punished if the slave dies as a direct result, but they are not to be punished if the slave recovers after a day or two, since the slave is their property. (Exodus 21: 19-21)

Thanks to Moses, the Hebrews were freed from the bonds and prejudices of Egyptian laws and tradition, said medical historian Theodor Puschmann in 1891. (3, page 28)

It was also thanks to Moses that the Jewish (and later the Christian) community was introduced to the method of good hygiene as a method of preventing disease.

Perhaps, said Puschman, it was this new found freedom that allowed Moses to encourage the Hebrews to eat some of the foods Egyptian gods forbade, such as rabbit and hog. Yet this may also have been a byproduct of the necessity of eating the foods that were available in the lands the Hebrews happened to be in at the time, for Moses surely wouldn't want his followers to starve on the way to the promised land due to Egyptian laws. (3, page 28)

Puschmann said this newfound freedom also allowed the Hebrews to be influenced by the people they came into contact with, such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, Chaldees, and Persians. This exposure further increased their medical knowledge as well. (3, page 28)

The Hebrews were able to adapt these new cultures and incorporate them into their own. For example, you no longer had to be a priest in order to be a physician. For the first time ever, anyone interested in learning could learn, and this meant anyone could become a doctor. (3, page 28)

This was perhaps a gift of the God of Israel.

1. Renouard, Pierce Victor, "History of Medicine: From it's origin to the 19th century," 1856, Cincinnati, Moore, Wistach, Keys and Co., page 26, chapter 1, "Medicine of the Antique Nation."
2. "Moses," Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10596a.htm, accessed 3/21/13
3. Puschmann, Theodor, translated by Evan H. Hare, "A history of medical education from the most remote to the most recdent times," 1891, London, H.K. Lewis
4. Garrison, Fielding Hudson, "An introduction to the history of medicine, with medical chronology, suggestions for study, and bibliographic data," 3rd edition, 1922, Philadelphia and London, W.B. Saunders Company