500 B.C.: Pythagoras introduces Greece to philosophy

Pythagoras of Samos (570-495 B.C.)

Even though he made no direct impact on medicine itself, Pythagoras of Samos (570-495 B.C.) may well be the most significant figure to our asthma history. The reason is because he might have been responsible for bringing Egyptian and Babylonian philosophy, math, astrology and medicine to ancient Greece.

By no means am I implying here that Pythagoras invented philosophy, for that couldn't be further from the truth: the quest for knowledge, which is what philosophy is, started long before Pythagoras was even born.

Near the beginning of civilization there were a few sages who pondered in secret about the world around them, and doubted it was all created by the gods.  They asked questions and sought answers, and what they discovered became the first theories.

They studied the stars and planets and became the first astrologers.  They studied numbers and became the first mathematicians.  They studied geometry and became the first architects.  They studied medicine and became the first physicians.

Pythagoras celebrates sunrise (by Fyodor Bronnikov)

Such wisdom was only privy to a select few members of the priesthood or aristocracy, and what they learned was used to advance civilization.  An anonymous sage in Sumeria invented the potter's wheel to make clay pots, and and another sage learned how to build channels and aqueducts to irrigate the land. Another anonymous sage invented a language and a system of writing.  An anonymous sage in Egypt invented the material and tools for building massive pyramidal structures, and another learned how to mummify the dead to prepare their bodies for the afterlife.

The problem with this early philosophy was that it was far and few between.  The majority of the people, about ninety-nine percent of them, worked a minimum of twelve shifts everyday, seven days a week.  They did not have time to think and ask questions let alone time to learn.  Yet during the 9th century B.C. things were occurring in ancient Greece that would change all this, thus giving rise to the Age of Philosophy in ancient Greece.

No one knows exactly when this occurred, but sometime before the great poet Homer sat down to write his epic poems, gymnasiums were being built near the temples of various gods,and these were dedicated to shaping the bodies of young men.  (1, page 80)

In these gymnasiums young men would exercise, play games, and otherwise prepare their bodies for battle. Occasionally they ventured off to battle, and they won many wars, and they marched home with prisoners of war.  These prisoners were turned into slaves, and by the 6th century B.C. nearly all the citizens of Greece owned many slaves, and these slaves did all the work.  This allowed the citizens of Greece plenty of time to enjoy the pleasures of life.

Some citizens spent their days pondering about the world around them, and they yearned for answers.  So they traveled abroad to Egypt, and Mesopotamia, and India.  In this way, they spent time with the sages of these places, and they expanded their knowledge.

At this time, the best medical schools were in Egypt, and therefore it was probably at the schools at Heliopolis that the Greeks came into contact with Egyptian medicine. They must have been very impressed with this knowledge that they took it home and shared it with their fellow citizens of Greece. (7, page 22)(6, page 4)

It was in this way that the Egyptian method of healing at temples morphed into Aeslepion temples in Greece.  Apollo was a god similar to Thoth.  Thoth was worshiped as Hermes.  Other Egyptian gods, such as Isis, were worshiped in Greece, and later Rome, until around 50 B.C. (6, page 2)

Pythagoras is perhaps the man responsible 
for bringing Egyptian and Babylonian
math, astrology, and medicine
to ancient Greece.

So this was the world that Pythagoras was born into in 570 B.C., give or take ten years.  Since nothing was written about him during his lifetime, all we know of him comes from second hand accounts after his death.  It's from these accounts that historians learned his dad was Parthenis, and that he was a descendant of the gods.  His mother was Mnesarchu.  (3, page 7-9)

They learned that an oracle at Pythian told Parthenis that his wife was pregnant with a child who would be blessed with great wisdom and who would be of great benefit to mankind. In recognition of the oracle, the child was named Pythagoras.  (3, page 7-9)

In his youth he must have spent quality time in the gymnasium at Samos, as he became a gifted athlete.  He was also a gifted student who loved to learn, and so must have listened to the stories of the orators, and the lectures of the sages.  At one point he listened to a lecture by the philosopher Phercydes about the "immortality of the soul," and he was "so charmed" that he dedicated the rest of his life to philosophy.  (1, page 81)

To satiate his quest to learn more he began his travels around the world, or so legend has it.  He first traveled to Meletus of Anatolia (modern day Turkey), which was at the time the home of philosophers.  While there he learned of the wisdom of three early Greek philosophers.  

Thales of Miletus was perhaps the first Greek Philosopher

1.  Thales of Meletus:  (624-546) He was a Greek citizen who lived in Meletus of Anatolia.  He is often credited as being the first philosopher and scientist.  He was the first who, instead of giving credit of all physical phenomenon to the gods, searched for the true cause.  He asked questions and searched for answers.  The answers were called theories. (3 page 12)

He traveled to Babylon and learned astrology, and used it to predict an eclipse of the sun.  He traveled to Egypt and learned from the Egyptian sages at Heliopolis.  He learned geometry and predicted the height of the pyramids using only its shadow.  He learned Egyptian medicine, which at the time was the best in the world. It's believed that he started the process of blending Egyptian medicine into Greek philosophy. (5, page 89-90)

He concluded that water was the primary element, and that all other elements were derived from it. By his observations he associated life with water.  Of this, historian Henry E. Sigeris said in 1987:

Thales had been in Egypt and saw the Fertilizing effect of water of the Nile that flooded the land periodically. He even ventured an explanation of this natural phenomenon, as Herodotus tells us.  Throughout the East he could see that life was bound to the presence of water.  Where water reached vegetation was abundant, and where it ceased, the desert began. Whatever was alive was moist, and Thales must have noticed that life-giving human and animal sperm was moist.  And so he came to believe that there was a casual relationship between water and life... when water evaporated, did it not become air? Such observations and speculations must have guided Thales in his assumption that water was the primary element.  (5, page 90)

Because of Thales, Meletus is often considered to be the birth place of Greek philosophy. (3, page 12)(5, pages 89-90)

Anaximander was among the world's first scientists, or, among the first
to question why things exist and to seek out answers by empirical means.

2.  Anaximander of Miletus: (611-546 B.C.) He became the pupil of Thales, and together he and his master were the first known philosophers, and therefore the first astrologers, scientists, mathematicians, and physicians. (3, page 12)

He did not believe, however, that water was the primary element.  Of him, Sigerist said:

He believed that the elements commonly thought to constitute the world -- water, earth, fire and air, with their qualities wet, dry, hot or cold -- were derived from one common indeterminate substance.  From this inexhaustible primary substance which 'includes everything in itself and guides everything,' two pairs of elements with opposite qualities were born, which seemed to be in ideal balance. In the beginning of the world these elements were separated with the earth in the center, and covered by a sphere of water. which was surrounded by air and ultimately fire. Everyday experience taught what happens when fire acts upon air, water, and earth. The earth became dry, water evaporated, pressure increased, and the ring of fire burst... Thunder and lightning were not the work of Zeus, but were caused in a perfectly natural way when air was compressed in a cloud and burst forth violently.  All living creatures originated in the water, and some became land animals when the water evaporated.  Man too arose from a fish-like creature. (5, page 91)

Sigerest said Aristotle said that Anaximander said "all things are full of gods."  In this way, Sigerist said, Anaximander began the transition away from believing everything was caused by gods, to the idea that they were caused by naturally occurring phenomena.  (5, page 91-92)

3.  Pherecydes of Syros:  (570-495 B.C.) He was among the first to rationalize Greek mythology.  In this way, he is credited as being the first to establish the idea that the human soul was immortal.  This type of thinking was taught by Pherecydes at the gymnasium of Syros, and it greatly impressed a young Pythagoras. (2)

It is then speculated that Pythagoras traveled abroad, to Egypt, Mesopotamia and India.  It's believed he spent 20 years in Egypt learning from its sages.  Some speculate he even became an Egyptian priest.  He then was taken to Mesopotamia and held captive for 12 years in Babylon. During his time there he learned from Mesopotamian sages.   (3, page 12-14)

Medical historian Max Neuburger said once his travels were done he settled in Crotona, which is now Southern Italy. He said:

(He) founded a guild in Crotona, religious and moral, did pioneer work, not only in mathematics, astronomy and acoustics, but in investigation of the structure of the body, reproduction and development, the functions of the senses and mental activity, as well as in the treatment of the sick. (8, page 105)

Neuburger also said that being that there was also an Asclepion in Crotona, physicians at the medical school at Crotona were probably constantly in touch with the Pythagorean followers, many of whom were physicians. So early on there was a mingling of the different schools of philosophy or medicine. (8, page 106)

His greatest interest was regarding religion, and so he preached that what was learned in this life could be used in the next life when the soul moves on to another body, or to the final resting place.  (3, page 25)

Some speculate he came up with this idea from Phercydes, although some speculate this wisdom came from the Egyptians, who likewise believed the soul traveled into the afterlife.  Although others speculate this wisdom came from the Indians, who believed in reincarnation of the soul, or that once you die you are reborn as another person.

His followers were interested in his ideas about religion, but they were also interested in all his philosophical wisdom.  While historians credit Thales as the first philosopher, Pythagoras was the first person to refer to himself as a philosopher during his own lifetime.

Again, we must understand that philosophy is the quest for knowledge.  So when Pythagoras, and all the later ancient philosophers, lectured, they preached all the wisdom of the day, which included  mathematics, science, astronomy, astrology, music, and medicine.  It wasn't until many centuries later that each of these were extracted from under the rubric or umbrella term philosophy to become natural sciences all of their own.

So by his lectures he shared this knowledge.  His fellow Greek citizens were so impressed that word quickly got out about all the knowledge of Pythagoras, and so he quickly developed a large following. Renouard said his followers became known as Pythagoreans Disciples, or simply Pythagoreans.

Pythagoras established these followers of his into "a well-disciplined school," said Henry Sigerist in his 1922 history of medicine. It was called the Pythagorean Order.  (5, page 94-95)

Renouard said his followers would often sell all they had to dedicate their lives to Pythagoras and the general good.  (1, page 83)  Sigerist said they ate a healthy diet in order to maintain a healthy balance, or equilibrium, within their bodies.

Neuburger said, according to Pythagoras: (8, page 107)

The body was formed from the warm, the breath causes cooling.The causes of disease are bile, blood and phlegm. Predisposition to disease are excess or lack of warmth, nourishment, etc. Inflammation arises from accumulation of phlegm -- in itself warmth producing. (8, page 107)

When they were sick it was because the equilibrium was disturbed, and it was only re-established "physically with medicine, and mentally with music. This was why both medicine and music were greatly cultivated in the Pythagorean school, " said Sigerist. (5, page 96)

Neuburger said:

Health, according to him was a condition upon the equilibrium of materials present in the body (cold, moist, warm, dry, sweet, bitter); sickness results through the predominance of one quality, cure from a restoration of the balance, through the addition of the opposite one. (8, page 107)

Neuburger said he neglected "most surgical procedures, and mostly employed the following as remedies: (8, page 106)

• Simples
• Poultices
• Salves
• Expiations
• Spells
• Magical herbs
• Incantations
• Religious music
• Physical exercise (gymnastics)
• Dietetic measures (such as limited consumption of meat) (8, page 106)

Renouard said Pythagoras taught a system of numbers that he probably learned from the Egyptians. (1, page 84)

"He designated God by the figure 1, and matter by 2; so he expressed the universe by 12, because this results from the juxtaposition of the figures 1 and 2."  (1, page 84)

Renouard said he explained the three distinct parts of life, or the three worlds: body, soul, and spirit.  So in this way the universe was in "harmony with the body and the soul," which, according to Pythagoras, were "manifested by three distinct faculties: sensibility, thought, and intelligence."  (1)

Renouard said Pythagoras introduced the Greeks to the significance of the number four.  He preached that there were "four spheres from which are formed each one of its three distinct worlds, (that) correspond to four elementary modifications of inert or amorphous matter. These primitive modifications are called fire, air, earth, and water, and are the elements which constitute all material substance." (1, page 84)

He was the first to establish the idea that the brain was the center of human intelligence. (8, page 106-107)(9, page 83)  This was a major step as far as medicine was concerned because physicians of neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia considered this fact.  Egyptians thought it was the heart, and Babylonians thought it was the liver.

He is also credited with creating the Pythagorean Therum, which states that the square of a hypotenuse of a right angle is equal to the sum of its squares. He is also credited with being the first to say the earth was a sphere, among other things.

We  must remember, however, that since most of what is known of him was told by second hand accounts after his death, much of what we know of him was probably exaggerated. Much of what was attributed to him was probably actually invented or discovered by one of his contemporaries or peers.  This was probably because Pythagoras lectured mostly in secret because much of what he taught was radical.  His followers were sworn to secrecy.  Perhaps this explains why Pythagoras was credited with all the wisdom of the Pythagoreans.  (3, page 20)(5, page 95)

Sigerist said that another reason for this was because "loyalty to the master impelled his student to attribute every contribution of any importance to him (Pythagoras)."

This was typical, however, of the ancient world, as most people were forced to, or in most cases willing to, make a humble contribution to the the collective.    (5, page 95)

Many historians also believe much of what he is credited with may even have been known for generations before he was even born, such as the pythagorean therum, which must have been known when anonymous architects were building many of the structures of the ancient world.  It may have been postulated by Egyptian mathematicians, or perhaps even by an anonymous sage from ancient Sumeria.

Pythagoras was well respected in life, although his ideas on mathematics were generally not accepted until well after his death.  However, the teachings of his school would influence many succeeding generations of Greek philosophers, including Plato and Hippocrates.  In fact, his teachings also continue to influence people to this day.

Pythagoras died sometime around 500 or 490 B.C., although his philosophy lived on for many years by his followers. They continued to lecture, and in this way philosophy was learned by many Greek citizens, including Plato and Hippocrates. In fact, his teachings continue to influence people even to this day.

Henry E. Sigerist, in his 1922 history of medicine, said that Pythagoras may simply have been a benefactor of the times he was born into, a time when Greek citizens were becoming better educated about the world around them.  He said:

Many people were no longer satisfied with the naive and primitive worship of the Homeric gods and felt shocked by the many scandals mythology reported about them. We saw that the cult of Asclepius developed in this atmosphere, as did a number of mystery religions under Asiatic influence. Pythagoras is one of the exponents of the great Orphic movement." (5, page 95)

So by the 5th century there was such a demand for wisdom that many of the gymnasiums were transitioned to places of learning, thus becoming the schools and universities. (4, page 39)

Many believe this system of associating education with a temple was learned from Egyptian and Babylonian sages, as both those nations had a similar system of learning.

The most famous of these Greek schools were associated with temples of the god Asclepius, who was the the messenger of the gods and capable of communicating their wisdom with the citizens of Greece.  These schools became known as Asclepions.

Renouard said these gymnasiums were "surrounded by halls and porticos where philosophers, rhetoricians, artists, and physicians assembled to hold their schools and dispute on questions of art." (1, page 80)

So with a lot of time on their hands, and a burning passion to learn, Greek citizens like Thales, Anaximander, Pherecydes and Pythagoras traveled the world in search of the wisdom of the sages.  What they brought back to Greece inspired its citizens, peeking their interest in philosophy.

It was Pythagoras, and Pythagoras alone, whether this is accurate or not, who is given credit for introducing ancient Greece to philosophy.  Of this, Renouard concludes that Pythagoras was: (1, page 90)

"The last celebrated example of distant peregrinations in search of wisdom..." (after him) "the sages of Greece ceased their journeys in search of light in foreign countries, for their own country became in its turn a center of illumination for all nations." (1, page 90)

Pythagoras gave rise to the Age of Philosophers.  This is key to our asthma history because without ancient Greek philosophy, modern medicine would be ages behind where it is today, if it existed at all.

References:

1. Renouard, Pierre-Victor, "History of Medicine: from it's origin to the nineteenth century," 1867, Philadelphia, Lindsay and Bakiston
2. "Pythagoras," Encyclopedia Britannica.com, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/485171/Pythagoras, accessed 11/1/12
3. Harkins, Susan Sales and William H. Harkins, "Biography from Ancient Civilizations, Legends, Folklore, and Stories of Ancient Worlds: The Life and Times o Pythagoras," 2007, Mitchell Lane Publishers
4. Osler, William, "The Evolution of Modern Medicine: A series of lectures at Yale University on the Silliman Foundation in April, 1913," New Have, Yale University Press, 1921,
5. Sigerist, Henry E., "A history of medicine," 1987,
6. Sandwith, Fleming Mant, "The Medical Diseases of Egypt: part I," 1905, London, Henry Kimpton
7. Withington, Edward, "Medical History from the earliest times," 
8. Neuburger, Max, writer, "History of Medicine," 1910, translated by Ernest Playfair, Volume I, London, Oxford University Press
9. Garrison, Fielding Hudson, "An introduction to the history of medicine," pages 80-83.  

RT Cave Facebook Page
RT Cave on Twitter

800 B.C Asclepius will heal your asthma, part 2

Buck explains that the person would lie down, usually wrapped in coat of a Ram , and then drift off to sleep. (8, page 62)  The god Asclepius would then enter the hostel, remove your skull , and take out the demons.  When you woke up you'd either have an epiphany regarding the cure, or the priest would tell you the cure the god recommended.

Actually, Garrison said that once the patient fell asleep the priests would dress like the god.  If the patient was asleep the remedy would occur to the patient.  If necessary the patient would tell the priests what he dreamed of, and the priests would interpret them, thus relaying the cure.  Some patients would not sleep, and they would come face to face with the god, who would directly relay the cure. The god may either appear as a vision, or he may have actually been one of the priests in disguise.  (7, page 76)

Watson said the temples were:

"Always filled with patients; and along their walls the tablets (votive tablets) were suspended upon which were recorded the history and treatment of the individual cases of disease." (5, page 27)

Neuburger said the votive tablets were made of wood or stone, "and hung up on posts or pillars." (13, page 95)

As the patient's slept, the priests would review the complaints of the patients, and perhaps assess them vaguely.  This information was then used for divination purposes, where the priests would make both a diagnosis and prognosis.  The priests would then refer to the votive tablets for the cure.  (2, page 57)

In looking at the votive tablets, the priests would look for similar diseases. enouard explained the reasoning behind this system:

These persons have constantly in their mouths these words: “ I have seen a disease similar to this cured by such a remedy.” Their reasoning, however gross it appears to us, is based on an incontestable principle, that may be stated as follows: Remedies which have cured a disease, must be equally efficacious in curing analogous cases. (9, page 70)

As noted by Neuburger above, this was mainly done to offer hope to the sick.

Renouard said this was a system similar to that of the ancient Egyptians.  He said the votive tablets "showed the names of the patient, the kind of disease with which he was attacked, and the manner of the cure." (9, page 67)

Renouard said that one votive tablet was found in Rome on the island of Tiber, the site of an ancient Asclapion temple.  He quoted the following from one of these tablets:

"Lately a certain Carus, who was blind, came to consult the oracle. The god required that he approach the sacred alter to perform adorations; at once he passed from the right to the left, and having rested his fingers on the altar, he raised his hand and applied them to his eyes. He recovered his sight immediately, in the presence of the people, who rejoiced to see such marvels accomplished under the reign of our august Antonius." (9, page 67)

“Lucius was attacked with a pleurisy, and every one despaired of his life. The god ordered that the ashes of the altar be taken, mingled with wine and applied to his side. He was saved, and gave thanks to god before the people, who congratulated him.” (9, page 67)

“Julian vomited blood, and appeared lost beyond recovery. The oracle ordered him to take the pine seeds of the altar and eat them for three days, mingled with honey. He did so, and was cured. Having solemnly thanked god, he went away.”

“The god gave this direction to a blind soldier named Valerius Aper: Take the blood of a white cock, mingle it with honey, and make acollyrium, which you are to apply to the eyes for three days. The soldier having fulfilled the direction of the oracle, was restored to sight, and returned to make a public thanksgiving to God.”

The tablets were reviewed by the priests when their memories did not allude to a similar case and a cure. (9 page 67).

These tablets were studied by the priests, particularly when they were in training, and were later studied by students of philosophy in schools (gymnasiums) that were attached to the Asclepions.

Neuburger said:

Asclepios enjoined mostly natural cures, such as diet, exercise... hunting, or fencing, also physical means -- listening to song, seeing a play -- less often bleeding or purgatives, at times seemingly ridiculous but really suggestive measures. Success was always ascribed to the credit of the god, failure to the fault of the patient."

Osler said the priests "did not neglect the natural means of healing.  The inscriptions show that great attention was paid to diet, exercise, massage and bathing, and that when necessary, drugs were used."  (2, page 57)

Most of the drugs used were generally to cleanse and purify the body.  Garrison said some common drugs were cathartics (purgatives), emetics, or bleeding.  (7, page 76) Other drugs that may have been used were diaphoretics, stimulants, and sedatives.  

Most drugs consisted of a variety of herbs prepared into pills made of dough that were taken orally or through the rectum.  Some remedies were made into drinks such as wine.    

Sigerist said the rich gave expensive gifts and sacrifices, and the poor gave what they could. Some slept in the temples and some in nearby hostels hoping to be cured by the god in the night.   If you had asthma perhaps you were among the crowd sleeping on the floors.  Or, in your case, slumped over a chair yearning to fall asleep to learn how to get your breath back. (1, page 73 and 3)

Neuburger said the "hostels (shelters) were "undertaken by the keepers of inns and boarding-houses in the neighbourhood." (13, page 94)

Garrison said if you did get better, an offering of thanks, which often included a wax model of the "diseased part," was presented to the god, and the story recorded on the votive tablets for future priests to reference.  (7, page 76)

Some speculate that at some point during the life of the Asclepions medicine was transformed in Greece from mythology and theology to natural philosophy and reason (an early form of science), but at exactly what point this occurred, and how many cases were seen prior to this transformation, are unknown. (9, page 68, 76)

That medicine was practiced at the Asclepions, as opposed in some remote location among the populace, is what allowed medicine to advance.  It is only out of this system, as Renouard quotes Louis Philippe Auguste Gauthier from his 1844 book "Recherches Historiques sur l’Exercice de la Médicine dans les Temples,”

It must be agreed, that in those barbarous times, medicine could make more progress in the hands of a corporation like the Asclepiadae, than if it had been merely a domestic or popular art.  It is not probable that, at a period so remote, when the arts and sciences were still in their infancy, a man of genius could be suddenly raised up, who could elevate medicine to the rank of a science... It is probable that the reading of the inscription in the temples, and the habit of seeing a great number of sick, gave, in the end, a certain amount of medical instruction to the priests." (9, page 76)

Initially this knowledge was esoteric to only the priests of the Asclepions, although, over time, the priests at Cos preferred a more rational approach to medicine. This rational medicine ultimately gave rise to the physicians who worked outside the Asclepions.  (13, page 96)

Sometimes around 400 B.C. a famous physician named Hippocrates, the so called man of genius, transcribed the votive tablets at the temple of Cos into the infamous Hippocratic Corpus, or so some speculate. 

By writing the Corpus, Hippocrates not only helped complete the transformation of medicine in Greece, he also made this knowledge available to the public.  It was for these reasons, as we will learn later, why Hippocrates will forever be known as the father of medicine.

In the meantime, many historians have noted that ancient Greece was well ahead of other ancient societies in regards to medicine.  The best evidence of this is the accumulated knowledge obtained from the votive tablets stored in the Asclepions. Of this, Meryon said:

"And this opinion appears to be supported by the fact that from the earliest time of which any historic record exists, the Hellenic physicians were in high repute at the court of Babylon; so that, although the origin of Grecian medicine is involved in the most profound obscurity, the resources at the Asclepiades were obviously appreciated over and above the appliances of the Persians, which were chiefly derived from astrology and magic." (6, page 20)

While some may think of such "asylums" as the first hospitals, Watson notes this wasn't necessarily true.  He said:

"The temples bore no inapt resemblance to the hospitals and infirmaries of modern times; into which, in fact, some of them were ultimately converted. (5, page 26)

Thomas Bradford, in his 1898 book "Quiz questions on the history of medicine," said the Asclepions were, however, converted into hospitals when Constantinople made Catholicism the official religion of Rome in 312 A.D.  It was Helena, the mother of Constantine, who was the primary champion for this conversion. (12, page 49)

Even after their demise, even after the glorious physicians of the Grecian era were long gone, the sick could still travel to the Asclepions for health and healing. Even as the medicine was transformed from philosophy back to theology, at least the sick were offered the best mode of treatment in the ancient and primitive worlds, and that was hope.

References:

1. Sigerist, Henry E, "A History of Medicine," 1961 edition, Volume II: Early Greek, Hindu, Persion Medicine," Oxford University Press, page 44
2. Osler, William, "The Evolution of Modern Medicine: A series of lectures at Yale University on the Silliman Foundation in April, 1913," New Have, Yale University Press, 1921,
3. Templesuk.org, "Asclepius," http://healing.templesuk.org/asclepius.htm
4. Withington, Edward Theodore, "Medical History from the Earliest Times," 1894, London
5. Watson, John, "the Medical Profession in Ancient Times," 1856, New York, 
6. Meryon, Edward, "The History of Medicine: Comprising a narrative of its progress from the earliest ages to the prestne and of the delusions incidental to its advance from empericism to the dignity of a science," volume I, London, 1861
7. Garrison, Fielding Hudson, "An introduction to the history of medicine," 1922, 3rd edition, Philadelphia and London, W.B. Saunders and Company
8. Buck, Albert Henry, Williams Memorial Public Funds, "The growth of medicine from the earliest times to about 1800," 1917, London, Oxford University Press
9. Renouard, Pierre-Victor, "A History of Medicine from its origin to the nineteenth century," 1867, Philadelphia, Lindsay and Blakiston
10. Bradford, Thomas Lindsley, "Quiz questions on the history of medicine: form the lectures of Thomas Lindsley Bradford, M.D," 1898, Philadelphia
11. Strathern, Paul, "A Brief History of Medicine from Hippocrates to Gene Therapy," 2005, U.K. Avalon Publishing
12. Bradford, Thomas Lindsley, writer, Robert Ray Roth, editor, “Quiz questions on the history of medicine from the lectures of Thomas Lindley Bradford M.D.,” 1898, Philadelphia, Hohn Joseph McVey
13. Neuburger, Max, writer, "History of Medicine," 1910, translated by Ernest Playfair, Volume I, London, Oxford University Press

RT Cave Facebook Page
RT Cave on Twitter