106-48 B.C.: Greek medicine migrates to Rome

In order for the medical ideas of Greece to stand the test of time, this "key of medicine" would have to make it's way to other cultures.  This is exactly what happened through the course of many years as Grecian medicine migrated to ancient Rome.

Although they didn't know it at the time, the Latins had picked the perfect spot to build their village.  It was one of many built around the seven hills along the Tiber River in the Italian Peninsula somewhere around 750 B.C.  (1, page 112)

It was in the lowland, as compared with other Italian villages.  While close to the sea it was built on a mountain side "where there was lava flow with a dominant position over the sea and the river Sarno."  (2)

Due to its volcanic origins, the "soil is naturally rich in water springs and minerals.  The hills were made of tufa rock, "a soft hardened rocky sponge," which the Romans were later able to use to make large buildings and monuments.  (2) The village grew into a city.

At first the Romans were peaceful farmers and herders, but around 600 B.C. the Etruscans from up north along the Tiber decided to conquer the other villages.  For the next 100 years Rome was ruled by the Etruscans.  In 509 B.C. the people of Rome rebelled and set up what became the world's first republic. (1, page 112)

The people of Rome didn't forget what had happened, and they continued to build a mighty military. Many of the people became skilled soldiers, and they decided to fight for more land.  By 270 B.C. they took over the entire Italian Peninsula, and then after 23 years of Punic wars, in 146 B.C., the Romans conquered the city of Carthage along the north coast of Africa, where the Phoenicians settled. (1, 113-114)

There were three wars with Carthage, called the Punic wars, and in the second one, Macedonia, the strongest city-state in Greece at that time, decided to help Carthage.  Romans didn't forget this either, and when Carthage was defeated, the Romans conquered Greece and took many Grecians back to Rome.

Of course many of these people were philosophers and physicians, and thus Rome was introduced to Greek adaptations to these arts. (1, page 114-15) As the Roman Empire spread, so to did Grecian culture.

Grecians taken to Rome became Roman slaves, and many were better educated than their new Roman masters.  So it "became customary for the well-to-do to select for the child's nurse a Greek slave, that a child might acquire the Greek language as naturally as its own," according to historian Harold Johnston.  (7, page 71)

Johnston explains that: (7, page 78)

The Greek language came to be generally learned and Greek ideas of education were in some degree adopted. Schools were established in which the central thing was the study of the Greek poets, and these schools we may call Grammar Schools because the teacher was called grammaticus. Homer was long the universal text-book, and students were not only taught the language, but were instructed in the matters of geography, mythology, antiquities, history, and ethics suggested by the portions of the text which they read. The range of instruction and its value depended entirely upon the teacher, as does such instruction to-day, but it was at best fragmentary and disconnected. There was no systematic study of any of these subjects, not even of history, despite its interest and practical value to a world-ranging people like the Romans.

Of course we must understand that after doing battle against many Greeks during the Punic wars, a prejudice developed among the Romans regarding Greek culture. This might explain Pliney the Elder's statement that Rome "got along for 600 years without physicians." (5, page 72)

He said that while knowing full well Rome had physicians, as he later contradicted himself by claiming the first physician came to Rome in 535 B.C. (3, page 81)

This prejudice might also explain why the Greeks were often disparagingly referred to as "graeculus esuriens of Juvenal," which means "hungry young Greek"  (5, page 72)

We must also understand that the Romans, as might be expected, had their own gods that they believed were responsible for health and sickness.  They had incantations and prayers they'd been using for hundreds of years.  They also saw Greek remedies as harsh, and the fact Greeks kept snakes in their "private houses in pursuance of the esculpian cult, did little to make medicine respectable in the eyes of the austere Romans." (5, page 97).

But the medical profession of Rome had it's problems. For one thing, the medicine was primitive in nature, and based mainly on incantations and prayers.  In describing the flaws of the Roman medical system of the time, Bradford quotes medical historian Pierre-Victor Renouard:

In the midst of this overflowing of charlatanism, the health of the citizens was given over to the first imposter who called himself a doctor; for how could the cheat and usurper of the title be distinguished from the man of knowledge and probity, who had acquired it by study? No examination, no legal proof was imposed on any one who wished to practice medicine; there was no security for the sick.''

These weaknesses may have left the door open ever so slightly to the curiosities of some of those who yearned for a remedy that Roman physicians were not providing. Regardless, as Grecian physicians and teachers migrated to Rome, they did so with little encouragement from the Romans. (4, page 96)

Yet as what usually happens, time heals all wounds.  When a person is really sick, when he realizes that incantations and prayers don't heal pain and suffering, he becomes eager to accept new ideas.  And it must have been in this way the Romans were gradually exposed to Grecian medicine, and slowly grew to respect and gain confidence in Grecian physicians.  (4, page 96)

One of the best ways to change the mindset of a people is to impress the king. Even kings are human, and even kings get sick. And kings have the ability to change the mindset of a nation. And it must have been in this way Caesar was exposed to the benefits of Grecian medicine, because in his travels he started taking physicians with him.(4, page 97)

Perhaps it was for this reason that Roman philosopher and orator Cicero (106-43 B.C.) "declared the duty of all men -- a duty particularly incumbant of himself -- to support the dignity of the healing art." (4, pages 96-97)

A Greek physician named Archagathus was among the first to escape the wars of Greece by emigrating to Rome.  When he was born no one knows, although what is known is he was born in Sparta and was later adapted by the Romans, becoming a Roman citizen in the year 219 B.C., around the time that Ptolomy Philopater in Egypt.  He was among the first physicians to emigrate to Rome.

Historian Thomas Lindsley Bradford, in his 1898 book "Quiz questions on the history of medicine," discussed the influence of Archagathus the Executioner upon Greek medicine.

He was the first of all the Greeks who attempted to introduce their kind of physic (medicine) into Italy. At first his coming was very agreeable to them, and many marked distinctions were paid him, but when he came to the cutting and burning part they changed their opinion, and conceived such an aversion to him that he was compelled to leave the city. He was called executioner on account of the too frequent use of the actual cautery and the knife. He was also called Vulnarius and Carnifex. He was honored by the Senate." (8, pages 27-28)

Bradford must have obtained much of his wisdom about Archagathus from the writings of Pliny the Elder, who wrote about 150 years later:

He obtained Roman citizenship and was extraordinarily popular on his arrival, but very soon, gained the nickname of the "executioner." (9)

Greek physicians ultimately did gain the respect and confidence of the Roman people, and the man given credit for this was Asclepiades of Bithynia.  He was born in Rome at the time of Pompey in 106 B.C., and then was educated at the school of Alexandria and practiced in Athens before moving back to Rome.  (4, page 99-101)  Despite his name, Asclepiades has no ties with the Asclepiade temples that rose in Ancient Greece and Rome. (8, page 28)

His opinions and remedies were based on the Atomist philosophy of medicine devised by Democritus, and were the opposite of the Hippocratic doctrine.  Since he believed in a different hypothesis as Hippocrates, he also had different remedies which included fresh air, light diet, hydrotherapy, massage, clysters, local application of some external medicines, and sparing use of internal medicine.  (5, page 72)(8, page 28-29)

This new medical philosophy, coupled by his "good bedside manner," made Asclepiades a very popular physician in Rome.  He was so well accepted that after his death other physicians took on his name hoping to take advantage of his fame.  (6, page 83)

Asclepiades basically believed Romans had a negative view of Greek medicine because their dogmatic remedies appeared to make a patient worse before he got better.  He believed it was perceived as a "crude and unfeeling practice."  He took advantage of this and smoothed out the edges by not using medicine that "offended the stomach" and using hygienic remedies instead.  His techniques were so well accepted he became famous and wealthy.  He wrote a book on General Remedies, and started the first school of medicine in Rome. (4, page 99)

Bradford said that:

He does not seem to have followed any course of medical study, but owing to his fashion of catering to the patient and avoiding everything that was painful and disagreeable, he soon gained a large practice.  He eschewed emetic and purgatives, though he practiced blood-letting.  He also relinquished the religious ceremonies which had held so large a place in medical practice...  His treatment was mainly dietetic and hygienic.  He advocated exercise, bathing, music, and even declamation as a means of curing disease." (8, pages 28-29)

He was revered by some as the greatest physician ever, aside from Hippocrates. Others claimed he was no more than a philosopher and charlatan. Even Galen "charged him with many absurdities, and with having but little knowledge of the great fathers of the profession, whom he affected to ridicule." (4, page 98)

Yet Caesar liked him and approve of his work, and that may have been all that was needed.  Asclepiades died in 48 B.C. "and is said to have been killed by a fall from a ladder in his extreme old age." (4, page 101)

So perhaps more so than the physicians themselves, it was a combination of both the politics, philosophy and public relations of the physicians, coupled with the approval of various emperors, who improved respect and confidence in Grecian medicine.  It is because of them Grecian medicine survived the test of time.

As John Watson said: (4, pages 97-98)

Caesar, after reaching the summit of his power, in order to attract men of science to the capital, and to improve the condition of those already there, decreed that all who practiced physic at Rome, and all the masters of the liberal arts therin residing, should enjoy the privilege of citizenship.  And Augustus, after having been relieved of a dangerous illness by his freedman, Antonius Musa, loaded this physician with wealth; raised him, by consent of the Senate, to the equestian rank; erected a bronze statue to his honor near that of Aeslepius; and, at his instigation, conferred important privileges on the whole body of the profession then residing in the city... These privileges afterwords confirmed by... later emperors." (4, pages 97-98)

Of Roman medicine, Bradford said:

Before the consolidation of the Roman empire in 31 B.C. there were no established medical laws.  The Greek system of training seems to have been in vogue.  Everyone who was liberally educated was instructed in philosophy of medicine. which explains why all the philosophers of the old days were also to some extent teachers of medicine. But the physician was expected, in common with his medical knowledge, to be familiar with the grammar of his own language, with rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, dialectics, moral philosophy, astronomy, and even architecture. (8, page 53)

The benefactors of all this education were, of course, all those who became sick or injured. It was in this way that Greek medicine, the key to medicine, migrated from Greece to Rome, and perhaps was saved.

References:

1. Suter, Joanne, "Fearon's World History," 1994
2. "Ancient Rome Geography,"  mariamilani.com, http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome/Ancient%20Rome%20Geography_.htm
3. Watson, John, "The Medical Profession in Anciet Times: an anniversary discourse delivered before the New York Accademy of Medicine November 7, 1855, New York, Baker and Godwin
4. Watson, ibid, pages 97-98, in reference to Seutonius, Octav, August, cap. lix.
5. Garrison, Fielding Hudson, "An introduction to the history of medicine: with medical chronology, Bibliographic data and test questions," 1913, Philadelphia and London, W.B. Saunders company
6. Withington, Edward, "Medical history from the earliest times: a popular history of the healing art," 1994, London
7. Johnston, Harold, "The Private Life of the Romans," 1908
8. Bradford, Thomas Lindsley, writer, Robert Ray Roth, editor, “Quiz questions on the history of medicine from the lectures of Thomas Lindley Bradford M.D.,” 1898, Philadelphia, Hohn Joseph McVey
9. Pliney the Elder, "Natural History,

RT Cave Facebook Page
RT Cave on Twitter

1194-800 B.C. Medicine in Ancient Greece

A Healing Temple of the god Asclepius

If you had an internal disease like asthma around 1194-800 B.C. and lived in Greece, chances are you wouldn't go to see a doctor. Physicians existed, but they were more trained to treat wounds such as those obtained in battle.   The person you'd go to see would be your priest, magician or witch.

The reason was simple:  most ancient societies, the Greeks included, believed disease was caused by the wrath of the gods.  To get your remedy you needed to find a person -- a priest, witch or magician -- to help you find out which god was mad at you and why.  Then you'd have to learn how to make that god happy again so you would have a shot at getting better, explains Henry E. Sigerist in his book, "A History of Medicine."  (1)

Yet the more common option, as Sigerist notes, would be to seek out your priest to learn what kind of offerings to make to the gods for healing.  This was more common because it was far less expensive than seeking a potion offered by a magician or witch.  (1)

He may prescribe for you a magic amulet, an incantation, and quite possibly an animal sacrifice, a pig perhaps, or a goat. Such a sacrifice would show the angry god that you value his wisdom over your own possessions. Since the gods were thought to live and breathe and eat like men in the Heavens, the sacrifice was thought to provide a food offering to the god.

This was a common form of medicine in the ancient world, a bribe of sorts.  I will provide you with this food offering if you make me well again.

A common ritual was to travel to the god's temple by walking, riding a horse, riding a donkey, or riding a cart.  The temple belongs to one of the healing gods, such, as Asclepius.  You'd spend time amid the priests, who had the ability to talk to the gods and hear their advice for healing.  Most often you'd sleep among them, and in the morning your cure would be revealed.

In this way, you received the healing benefits this god had to offer.

There were many such temples scattered around ancient Greece, and often they were associated with nearby hostels to house those who traveled for this purpose. Some early historians, Sigerist said, believed these "hostels attached to the Ascelpia were the first Western hospitals and poorhouses where indigent sick people stay and are treated by priest," writes Sigerist (1, page 73)

Later historians noted that these weren't hospitals in the way we think of them today, as the sick merely spent time there to learn the cure; they did not stay in the hostels until they were healed, but just one night.

Priestly healing was very common during this era.  In fact, the belief gods were responsible for good luck and bad luck, health and healing, made worshiping the god Asclepius very popular even up to the Birth of Jesus Christ.  Sigerist explained that it was for this reason the pagan god Asclepius was the greatest competitor of Jesus Christ. (1)

Sigerist said that one of the main reasons Asclepius was the greatest competitor to Jesus Christ was because he wasn't as greedy as the other gods, and he would accept even modest gifts.  This made it possible for him to be worshiped by both the rich and the poor. (1)

This was significant, because poverty was one of the main attractions of Christianity.  The poor couldn't afford physicians, nor the sacrifices demanded of most gods, and so Christianity was a viable option.  Yet so too was the god Asclepius.

Over time there was another medical paradigm that was growing in popularity and significance in ancient Greece, and that was the belief in natural medicine.  Some priest physicians were knowledgeable of which plants had medicinal and poisonous properties.  As time progressed, even the common folks were privy to this knowledge.

A good example of this was explained in the Odyssey by the great Greek poet Homer.  Henry E. Sigerist, explains the following: (1)

"There is relatively little mention of magic in the Homeric epics although the ancient Greeks believed in magic and, like everyone else in antiquity, practiced some...  The drug given to Helen by the Egyptian lady, Polydamna, had strong euphoric properties, so that whoever took it forgot all unpleasant memories and would not shed a tear even if his closest relative died; this drug might be opium or hashish, but it could just as well be the kind of miracle drug found in many fairy tales." (1)

As Sigerist explained, the Odyssey cannot be taken seriously.  However, it was based on real life events. The Greeks probably had access to various medicines, such as opium and hashish, and simply told of this medicine as a magic potion created by, say, witches or magicians.  Since the gods created everything, then they must have also created the magical powers present in some plants.

Knowledge of the inner organs and what they did was limited, yet observations from experience working with the wounded and the dead gave soldiers a pretty good idea where to aim their weapons to produce the most damage to the enemy's body.  They knew the best places to aim their arrows were the lower abdomen or, better yet, the nipples.

Physicians had magic healing powders and soothing drugs used to help people who were wounded in battle.  These tales also describe various poisons.  For example, Sigerist noted a line from Homer's Odyssey:

"Circe was a beautiful witch who could transform human beings into pigs, and it is absurd to assume that Eurylochus (a companion of Odysseus) who told the story had been the victim of hallucinations."  (1)

While these stories are twisted and turned into a memorable fairy tales, they may actually be descriptions of poisons used to punish or kill an enemy.   Although, whether this was the case we may only speculate.

While all ancient medicine started off as mythical, natural medicine was soon a viable option. Natural medicine may have been resisted at first, although through time its benefits were so obvious they could no longer be resisted.  So, of course, natural remedies found their way into mythology.

Over time, the two forms of medicine -- mythology and natural medicine -- would separate into two separate paradigms.

*Note: The dates chosen for this article are based on the estimated dates for the writings of Homer (800 B.C.) and the siege of Troy as described in Homer's Iliad (1194-1184 B.C.). The medical knowledge expressed in this post may also have effected you prior to and after these listed dates, which are mainly listed simply as a reference to make it easier to write a history, and easier to picture in your head where these events may have occurred. And even if you lived in Greece during these times, you may also have been subjected to primitive medicine, or pre-Greek medicine. I obtained the dates from Albert Henry Buck in his book "The growth of medicine from the earliest times to about 1800." (1917, London, Oxford University Press, page 46).

References:

1. Sigerist, Henry E, "A History of Medicine," vol. II, "Early Greek, Hindu, and Persian Medicine," 1961, Oxford University Press, pages 19, 20, 23, 28, 51

2000-539 B.C.: Assyro-Babyonian physicains

Code  of Hammurabi

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (484-425 B.C.) observed that there were plenty of physicians in Egypt and no physicians in ancient Mesopotamia.  Yet the evidence seems to disagree with Herodotus, that there were plenty of physicians in Mesopotamia, perhaps even as early as 4000 B.C. when the Sumerians were forming the first civilization, says Henry E. Sigerist in his 1951 book, "A History of Medicine: Primitive and Archaic Medicine.  (Sigerist, page 425)

Herodotus said:

They have no physicians (in Babylon), but when a man is ill, they lay him in the public square, and the passers-by come up to him, and if they have ever had his disease themselves or have known any one who has suffered from it, they give him advice, recommending him to do whatever they found good in their own case, or in the case known to them; and no one is allowed to pass the sick man in silence without asking him what his ailment is.

There is evidence that much of this statement is true, as there were laws requiring anyone passing by to ask the sick: "What is ailing you."  If this passerby knew of the remedy due to past experience, he was required to share the remedy.

Pierre-Victor Renouard, in his 1867 history of medicine, said this time of medical therapy was common early on in most ancient civilizations.  He said they essentially went by the axiom: (16, page 570)

The same cause, acting under identical circumstances, produces, always, the same effect. (16, page 570)

When applied to medicine, Renouard said, the axiom means:

A treatment which has procured the cure of any disease whatever, will cure, also, all diseases identical, or rather homogeneous to the first. (16, page 570)

So this would explain the logic of the sick lying in the streets in the hopes a passerby would recognize the symptoms and offer a remedy.

Medical historian Henry Sigerist agreed with the notion that there were "no physicians in ancient Mesopotamia," although he said it was an incomplete statement.  He said: (Sigerist, page 425)

Herodotus' statement about Egyptian physicians, about the many specialists, is fully confirmed  by Egyptian literature and also by archaeological findings.  In Babylonia, however he must have been grossly misinformed.  Perhaps he meant that the Babylonians had not the kind of physicians he encountered  in Egypt, that great variety of specialists.  There can be no doubt that patients were occasionally placed in front of the houses or even on the market place and that the neighbors gave their opinion about them.  This still happens with poor people all over the east.  but we have an infinity of documents to prove that all ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia had physicians, and not only one category but several.  Patients, therefore, were not left to the mercy of their families or of neighbors but received expert treatment according to standards prevailing at the time. (Sigerist, page 425)

Medical historian John Hermann Baas also noted that there was evidence of physicians existing in Babylon, although he stated that the profession began through the interventions of Chaldean priests, who, along with their Chaldean friends and relatives, were scattered all over Babylon.  (Baas, page 25)

Alexander Wilder, in his 1901 history of medicine, explains that Herodotus might have been referring to the "'atroi (magoi) or the professional mediciners, like Demokedes, and the Asklepiades and Hippokratians who were members of an oath bound or sacerdotal order.  Before his time, the Chaldean priests, including the Asaphim, had been exiled by Dareios Hystaspis and had migrated to Pergamos. This probably accounts for the assertion of Herodotus." (1, page 17)

Wilder notes that the...

..."practice of placing the sick in the public thoroughfares, is shown by other writers, 'Is it nothing to you, all ye that pass by?' demands the Hebrew prophet;  'Behold and see, whether there be any pain like mine."...It is recorded that wherever Jesus went the sick were brought and placed in his way in the expectation that he would restore them to health.... to suppose there were not physicians in the Euphraatean countries during the archaic period, would be preposterous." (1, page 17)

Priests were educated, and well educated, at schools near the temples.  As was usual for ancient societies, anyone who was educated was well versed in all subject areas, such as writing, math, science, weights and measures, legends, myths, magic, lore, medicine, etc.  If you were educated, you were probably trained in just about every area of knowledge available at that time. (Sigerest, page 432)

There were basically three types of priests who specialized in health and healing: (Sigerist, page 432)

1. (Seer Priest (baru):  He specialized in divination. He was basically responsible for assessing the patient and making a diagnosis, and he studied the stars and liver (or other organ) of a sacrificed animal and determined the prognosis (Will the patient get better? Will the patient die?).  He he thought it was necessary, he'd recommend an ashipu to heal you.(Sigerist, page 432)
2. Exorcist or Incantation Priest (ashipu):  He used magical words and motions to drive out the evil spirits or demons.(Sigerist, page 432)
3. Healing Priest (asu, azu):  He was the physician. He's the one who used magical incantations and herbal remedies to heal you. (Sigerist, page 432) Azu comes from Sumerian "A" for water and "Zu" for knows. He was famous for his knowledge of water in treatment of sickness)(Biggs)

Chances are, however, that these specialties didn't develop until the Chaldeans blended into Mesopotamian culture near the end or after the Sumerian Civilization. They came from the north, and brought with them knowledge of herbs, astronomy, astrology, and hepatoscopy.  As these people blended into Babylonian and Assyrian culture and were readily accepted, so to was their knowledge and medical practice.

As noted by Sigerist:

Health was considered a great good. 'May Shamash and Murduk give thee health' was a formula frequently used in Babylonia letters of Hammurabi's time.  And in Assyria the letter writer addressed the king with 'May Ninib and Gula give to the king my lord happiness and health.' Hence, disease was a great curse and the position of the sick man in society was aggravated particularly by the views that illness was a punishment for sin.  This at least was the case as soon as the Semitic (Chaldean) influence became strong. (Sigerist, page 425-6)

Babylonia and Assyrian civilizations existed for nearly 2000 years side by side, with Babylonia in the southern regions of Mesopotamia, and Assyrians in the northern regions of Mesopotamia.  They worshiped similar, and often the same, gods, and so too they shared pretty much the same medicine.  Priests became physicians, and they had various remedies to aid the sick and injured.

The Babylonians were the first to determine the importance of rest, and therefore people were strictly prohibited from treating the sick on the 7th day of the week, or the Sabbath day.  This was a day reserved for resting, feasting and worshiping the gods and demons.  (Bradford, pages 7-8)(Baas, page 28) 

This is noted in the following translation from a cuneiform tablet by George Smith: (Baas, page 28)

"The seventh day, feast of Mnrodnch and Zir: Panibti, a great feast, a day o rest. The prince of the people will eat neither the flesh of birds nor cooked fruits He will not change his clothing. He will put on no white robe. He will bring no offering. The king will not ascend into his chariot. He will not perform his duties as royal law-giver. In a garrison city, the commander will permit no proclamations to his soldiers. The art of the physician will not be practised."

Physicians also didn't perform any of their miracles on the 7th, 14th, 19th, 21st, and 28th days of the month because they were considered unlucky.  So if you were sick on those days you had to use whatever remedies you had access to. (Garrison, page 434)  

Average citizens did have access to their own herbal remedies and magic words, such as the following incantation asking for help from the gods for an internal disease: (Baas, page 28)

"Let the witch sit upon the right;
Let her leave the left side free!
Adisina, do thou tie the knot,
Hind up the head of the sick.
His limbs in like manner with fetters!
Seat thou thyself on his bed,
With the water of youth besprinkle him!"

They were also able to perform their own rituals and celebrations.  So, in this way, as in ancient Egypt, every citizen was a physicians. Although the better educated members of society looked to physicians and his medicine for aid, only to resort to incantations and prayers when all else failed. (Bradford, pages 7-8)

The asu were famous for their incantations, but they were also famous for their herbal poisons.  In this way, they earned a bad reputation.  Surely what they did might help the sick, if by no other means than by creating hope, although their herbal remedies also made some people sicker, and they killed some.  And some priests/ physicians abused their power.  So, this forced various societies to create laws to protect physicians from the magical abilities of these priests/ physicians.

In fact, this can be noted by many of the passages in the ancient stone tablets, or books.  In fact, Akkadian kings were forbidden to "take medicine for the ailments of the body."  (Wilder, page 17)

There was initially no formal method of payment of physicians, even though they were required to take care of the sick, particularly the kings and princes.  Although their services were appreciated, and often they were paid in the usual methods of the time, which included gifts of "large and small draught oxen, cows, horses, and camels." (Bradford, page 7-8)

In the 17th century B.C., however, a mighty ruler by the name of Hammurabi established a uniform code for everyone to follow, including physicians.  The code worked out great, because not only did it increase respect for physicians, it established a formal method of payment for them.  

Hammurabi was a mighty Amorite king of Babylon who gained fame as a great warrior and disciplinarian.   He fought the neighboring nations of Babylonia, including Larsa, Eshunna, Mari, and Assur.  He also fought a 30 year war with Elam, and defeated them.  (Sigerist, page 286)

In this way, he spread the boarders of Babylon, and spearheaded the process of assimilating the cultures of these other nations. 

Hammurabi was the 6th king of Babylon, ruling the city, civilization and the empire from 1792 to 1750 B.C.  While he was a great leader, perhaps he gained his harsh reputation for his strict rules, many of which influenced medicine for the Babylonians and future generations.

He did not write laws, per se, but he had the laws that already existed inscribed in stone and placed at the temples for all to see.  If you were not aware of the laws, this was no excuse.  The laws were pretty intense: an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, and a limb for a limb  

They also applied to physicians to assure they did nothing to make their patients worse off by their remedies.  This was necessary to protect the people from the magic of priests/ physicians, but it also had the end result of improving respect for them as well.

The laws were basic, and included: (Garrison, page 56)

• Adequate fees
• Carefully prescribed remedies
• Regulations to assure remedies were safe  (Garrison, page 56)

These laws were inscribed in stone and set near or inside the temples for all to see.  This way there was no excuse for anyone to be ignorant of the laws. In total there were 282 laws (for a full list of laws click here), with Laws 215 to 223 pertaining specifically to the physicians. The laws created regulations for them to follow, although they also provided for respectful payment for their services:

Here are some of the laws pertaining to physicians:

• 215:  If a physician makes a large incision with an operating knife and cure it, or if he open a tumor (over the eye) with an operating knife, and saves the eye, he shall receive ten shekels in money.
• 216:  If the patient be a freed man, he receives five shekels.
• 217:  If he be the slave of some one, his owner shall give the physician two shekels.
• 218:  If a physician make a large incision with the operating knife, and kill him, or open a tumor with the operating knife, and cut out the eye, his hands shall be cut off.
• 219:  If a physician make a large incision in the slave of a freed man, and kill him, he shall replace the slave with another slave.
• 220:  If he had opened a tumor with the operating knife, and put out his eye, he shall pay half his value.
• 221:  If a physician heal the broken bone or diseased soft part of a man, the patient shall pay the physician five shekels in money.
• 222:  If he were a freed man he shall pay three shekels.
• 223:  If he were a slave his owner shall pay the physician two shekels.

There is an epilogue to the laws, which includes a long promise, part of which includes:

"LAWS of justice which Hammurabi, the wise king, established... May Nin-karak, the daughter of Anu, who adjudges grace to me, cause to come upon his members in E-kur high fever, severe wounds, that can not be healed, whose nature the physician does not understand, which he can not treat with dressing, which, like the bite of death, can not be removed, until they have sapped away his life."

While Assyrian and Babylonian priest physicians were initially all trained the same, over time they each became specialized in a particular disease as occurred in Egypt.  You'd have one physician for the eyes, one for the liver, one for prophylaxis, one for divination, etc.  (Garrison, page 56)

So now, thanks to such laws, the sick and injured were less likely to fear the priest/ physicians.  If you were in need of medical attention, surely you could attempt to heal yourself, and surely you could lie in the streets and hope to find someone with the remedy, yet you also had access to physicians, even if they were merely priest/ physicians.  

References:  See post "2000 B.C.:  Assyrian physicians will treat your dyspnea"

RT Cave Facebook Page
RT Cave on Twitter