4000-30 B.C.: 'Black Land' creates mighty civilization, part 4

Herodotus was a Greek historian
who traveledthe world hoping to record its history.
He likewise traveled to Egypt,
recording all he could learn about the Great Nation.

(Read "Black Land" Part 1 here)

Despite their hard work, the Greek historian Herodotus went to Egypt and found the people to be exceptionally healthy.  Herodotus wrote:

Of the Egyptians themselves, those who dwell in the part of Egypt which is sown for crops practise memory more than any other men and are the most learned in history by far of all those of whom I have had experience: and their manner of life is as follows: -- For three successive days in each month they purge, hunting after health with emetics and clysters, and they think that all the diseases which exist are produced in men by the food on which they live: for the Egyptians are from other causes also the most healthy of all men next after the Libyans (in my opinion on account of the seasons, because the seasons do not change, for by the changes of things generally, and especially of the seasons, diseases are most apt to be produced in men). (Herodotus, page 41)

Many historians, Sigerist included, wondered why Herodutus would speculate this when evidence from mummies and writings suggest that there were various diseases caused by parasites, and also arthritis of joints and hardened arteries.  So based in light of this evidence, how could Herototus have come to the conclusion that the Egyptians were so healthy.

Sigerist speculates, however,  that perhaps the reason for this observation was that "the people we see in the streets of the city or on the fields of the farm are the peole in good health, while the weak and the sick are in the house."  (Sigerist, page 223)

Sigerist suggests Herodutus may also have had a different perception of disease as compared to the Egyptians, and notes:

Herodotus was a native of Halicarnassus in Caria, which, like the whole coast of Asia Minor and the Aegean islands, was infested with malaria in the fifth century B.C. When he traveled in Egypt, he must have been struck by the absensce or at least rarity of intermittent fevers, and this must have been an important factor in his favorable judgement about health conditions." (Sigerist, page 224)

It would have been nice if the commoners of ancient Egypt were better educated and had the ability to write, because then, perhaps, we would could get a more accurate picture of what it was like to live in ancient Egypt.  As it is, however, most of what we know is by observing scrolls that pretty much contained esoteric wisdom meant only for a select few, and from other artifacts left behind.

It is from these scrolls, and from the mummified remains of kings and the possessions meant to go with them in the after life that people learned what life was like back then.  And, unfortunately, most of these objects were created by and for members of the aristocracy, or the select few who were educated and privileged to enjoy the results of the labors of the other 90 percent.

What is known of the peasants, the serfs, was pretty much obtained by whatever was left of where they left and worked, which is mainly in ruins.  So what was life really like for the Egyptians, the majority of them who did the work?  What was it like if you were a slave ordered to work on the pyramids, and you suddenly became short of breath?  What would you do? What could you do?

What is known is that Egyptians had a language, and they learned how to write. This was a necessitated, probably, by the need to keep track of the level of the rivers, and perhaps to keep track of how much food each person made, and how much they should be paid. But only scribes could write, and only a few member of the aristocracy could read.

They created Hieroglyphics, a form of writing that used pictures to represent ideas.  It was similar to the Sumerian Cuneiform, although since the Egyptians were isolated, no other societies learned to use this language, and when the Egyptians died out, so too did their language.  Modern people had no way of interpreting this language until Napoleons soldiers discovered the Rosetta Stone in 1799 that had materials written in ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian.

While they may originally have written on clay tablets as was done in Sumeria, they eventually learned to make paper out of the papyrus tree.  As you may have guessed, the term paper comes from the term papyrus.  This allowed the Egyptians to write down information such as cooking recipes, medicine recipes, and building formulas on scrolls, and so any learned person could carry this with them.  Not many people knew how to write, however, and this made such a person who knew how --the scribes, the literati -- very powerful. As the old saying goes: knowledge is power.

The few who were in charge of running Egypt needed someone to make sure the gods were happy, and that the laborers these gods created did the work of the gods.  So they chose a person from among them to be their king.  Initially there were two kings in Egypt, with the people and territories they were responsible for being determined by the great Nile River the gods created.

The Nile divided Egypt into a southern and a northern region.  Sometime around 4,000 B.C. the people of southern Egypt united and formed Upper Egypt, and the people of northern Egypt came together and formed Lower Egypt.  These were the first two civilizations of Egypt, and whether they formed before, after, or about the same time as the Sumerian Civilization in Mesopotamia is anyone's guess.

Around 3100 B.C. a very powerful ruler had gained the reins of the throne of Upper Egypt, and he had a dream that all of Egypt should be united.  He gathered a mighty army, invaded the cities of upper Egypt, and this united the two.  In this way, it was King Menes who created the mighty Egyptian Empire.  The following is how things transpired in Egypt from this point on:

Ancient Egypt*
The Old Kingdom: 3000-2600 B.C. Protodynastic Age Dynasties I and II	King Menes (Narmer) made Memphis capital of Egypt, he had 42 nomarchs rule sections of land on his behalf, and these nomarchs made sure the people followed the commands of the ruler. They invented a system of irrigation to control the Nile waters and irrigate the land. They grew two crops every year. The first pyramids are built. Floods resulted in droughts and fasmine to end kingdom.(Martell, pages 30-31) Egyptian alphabet invented from pictoral signs, and invention of ability to make scrolls of papyrus.  Reeds were dipped in mixture of water, gum, and soot, and were used as first pens. (Sigerist, page 227)
The Pyramid Age: 2600-2200 Part of Old Kington Dynasties III to VI	This was when the most pyramids were built. People discovered material and equipment needed to built great monuments, and the first great Pyramid is built at Sakkara for King Zoser of the Dynasty III.  Many later pyramids and structures were built, including the Sphynx, pyramids at Giza, etc.  These still awe people to this day. (Sigerist, pages 227-8)
First Intermediate Period: 2200-2000 B.C. Dynasties VI to end of XI .	Central power weakened and various cities claimed independence.  Upper and Lower Egypt became independent, and the Egypt was open to “civil strife and to foreign invasion from Asia… the kings of Thebes and Heracleopolis contended for power. Anarchy was rampant at times and deep pessimism is reflected in the literature of the period.”  (Sigerist, page 229)
The Middle Kingdom: 2000- 1640 B.C.  “Classical Age of Egypt” Dynasties XI to XIII Hyksos from Canaan Invade Egypt: 1640 B.C	King Mentuhotep II reunited Egypt from his capital of Thebes. The capital was later moved to El Lisht.  They conquered Nubia to control trade along the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. Peace brought time to think, and this resulted in a flourishing of arts, crafts, and literature. Hyksos introduce chariots, bronze weapons, and methods of spinning and weaving. More Pyramids built. (Martell, pages 32-33) During this time medicine flourished. (Sigerist, page 229)
Later Intermediary Period: 1640-1580 Dynasties XIII to XVIII Ebers Papyrus Transcribed: 1600 B.C. Edwin Smith Papyrus Transcribed Amhose ascends to throne in 1580 B.C.	Kings once again lost control of Egypt and the Empire broke down.  Once again the two kingdoms separated, and this made it easy for the Semetic Hyksos to invade the land and take over control of Egypt.  Their god was Baal, and he ruled with the Egyptian Seth. (Sigerist, page 231)
The New Kingdom:  1580-1070 B.C. Dynasties XVIII to XX King Tut died: 1350 B.C. Ramses II enslaved Hebrews: 1300 B.C.  Bronze age coming to end, meant Egyptian weapons must be updated or they would be easily defeated.  Iron weapons used to defeat them. The once mighty Egyptian Empire was ending.	King Ahmose defeated Hyksos and reunited Egypt, and this created the “Golden Age of Egypt.” They conquered Palestine, Syria, and all land of Euphrates River.  Egypt became very wealthy. Pharoah tombs now carved into cliffs of the Valley of the Kings instead of building great Pyramids. Thebes became capital again. (Martell, pages 34-35. Ramses XI was the last King (Pharaoh)
Decline of Egypt: 1070-30 B.C. Dynasties XXI-XXX Assyria conquered Egypt: 671 B.C.  Egyptians regained control: 656 B.C.  Persians conquered Egypt: 525 B.C.  Alexander the Great happened: 332 B.C.  Ptolemies rule Egypt until about 30 B.C.	Civil wars with Libyans and Nubians lead to end of New Kingdom.  Priests took over for the pharaohs.  The new Pharaohs were Lybian and Nubian. Metal work flourished. Assyrians invaded Egypt with their iron weapons. In 656 Greeks helped Egyptians regain control of their land. In 332 B.C. Alexander the Great forms Alexandria.  (Martell, pages 36-37)

So it was civilization here in Egypt, as in Mesopotamia, that set the stage for a revolution of inventions and discoveries that would make life more bearable for all people.  Among these was the discovery of various herbs and plants that had medicinal and poisonous qualities, and this gave rise to medicine and a profession of physicians among the priesthood.

Egypt alone is famous for many things, yet perhaps among the most important, at least as far as our history is concerned, is the inventions of chemistry and medicine.  Egyptians, thus, are known as the inventors of medicine. They are the people who introduced medicine to the Greeks, who, it is said, introduced it to the rest of the civilized world.

*Please note that the dates listed here are estimates and may vary from one reference to the next. Some authors break these categories down even further, and some simplify them.  I figured the breakdown done here will suffice for our purposes.  For a further breakdown you can check out Michael Stecker's website: http://mstecker.com/pages/egyptdyn_fp.htm

References:

1. Sigerist, Henry E, "A History of Medicine," 1951, New York, Oxford University Press
2. Herodotus, "An Account of Egypt," translated by G.C. Macaulay, 2008, Maryland, ARC Manor
3. Martell, Hazel Mary, "Kingfisher Book of The Ancient World: from the ice age to the fall of Rome," 1995, New York, Larousse Kingfisher Chambers Inc. 
4. "Egyptian Calendar," Wikepedia.com, Wikepedia, accessed 4/17/13
5. Shuter, Jane, "Life in Ancient times: How the Ancient Egyptians Lived," 2011, China, Gareth Stevens Publishing
6. Kobasa, Paul A., editor, "Early Peoples: Ancient Egyptians," 2009, Michigan, World Book, Inc. 
7. Donn, Lynn and Don, writers, Kerry Gordonson, editor"Ancient Egypt," 2004, California, Social Studies School Service

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4000-30 B.C.: 'Black Land' creates mighty civilization, part 3

(Read "Black Land" Part 1 here)

Again, in order to understand what it was like to live with asthma, or any other disease, in the ancient world, it's important to understand what life was like back then and why people acted the way they did.  The basic idea among most ancient civilizations was that every thing focused around mythology, including medicine.

Egyptians were basically grouped into two classes, which were further divided into specialties:

1. Aristocrasy (Nobles): About 10 percent of the people.  They benefited from the work of the serf, yet they were still servents of the gods, working to serve the temple to appease the gods.
• Kings (could be Pharaoh)
• Queens (could be Pharaoh)
• Governors (nomarchs)
• Nobles (people of special status to the pharaoh)
• High Priests (magicians, sorcerers)
• Princes and Princesses
• Priests and priestesses (Literati, Teachers, Physicians, scribes, engineers, architects, artists)
• Officials on the courts
• Warriers (during war)
2. Peasants (Serfs): About 90 percent of the people. They were tied to land or shop, and worked for the pharaoh and the gods. His master was a nobleman, nomarch, pharaoh and then temple (god).
• Farmers (tended land and produced the food)
• Fishermen (built boats, caught fish for protein)
• Herdsmen (raised animals used for food and labor)
• Craftsmen (weavers, potters, blacksmiths, etc)
• Merchants (ran papyrus factories, made weapons, jewelry, rope, )
• Traders (they dealt with traders of other nations to trade Egyptians goods and services)
• Slaves (hard laborers, they built pyramids, temples and other structures, some were artists)
• Servants (work for king doing random jobs such as preparing food and record keeping)

Most of these jobs were hereditary, whereby you were pretty much trained to do the same jobs as your parents. If your father was a farmer, then that's what you would be trained to be.  Since eight out of nine infants either died during birth or within the first year of life, those who survived were a major asset, as more hands were always needed to do the work.  Chances are you were put to work as soon as you were capable, perhaps as early as seven, and you soon became a specialist in performing the work you were born to do.

At least once a year each adult male had to sign up to work in one of the gangs, and these were small groups of males managed by a supervisor of sorts.  He was in charge of 5-15 people, and they were assigned to do some form of task for the good of the collective, such a specific job necessary to the building of a temple, a pyramid, or a canal.  Or there task might be to repair a building or structure.  In either case, each peasant was a slave, of sorts, at least once a year.  They labored hard, but were housed, fed, and even paid for their work. (Donn, page 87)

For the most part only people living amid the aristocracy (those who were born into rich families) were taught how to read and write, and usually these were girls. There was only a select few very bright boys chosen to become educated at the temples, and this education started with the basics of reading and writing.  And this was done only out of necessity to perform the jobs they were chosen to do.  (Shuter, page 13)

Chances are these few moved into the aristocracy as some point during their lives to be nobles, governors, court officials, or even priests.  Or, better yet, chances are these chosen boys were already born into the aristocracy, and were training to do the jobs of their fathers.  So you can see that only a few were educated, and in this way knowledge was provided only to the privileged few; knowledge was esoteric; knowledge was, therefore, power.

The priests were among the most well educated, and therefore most powerful and most well respected, in all the land.  It was this profession among the aristocracy that became the most specialized, at least as time went by.  Since priests were among the most well educated, they became your literati, your scribes, your architects, your physicians.  Even the profession of physician became specialized over time.

That was another one of the advantages of better management of natural resources, was that enough food could be made in a small amount of land and by only a select few people.  This allowed others to specialize in a particular field, with some becoming wheat farmers, some becoming herders, some becoming artists, some specializing in making paper, some specializing in making gold jewelry, etc. This allowed for a lot of work to be done in a day, and this allowed the aristocracy to become very wealthy in both precious material items and time.  And, as you might have expected, more time meant more and better discoveries and inventions.

The majority of Egyptians did the job they were assigned, and labored hard.  They usually worked 12 hour shifts, sun up to sun down, seven days a week, only getting time off during the inundation.  Products of labor all belonged to the king or queen (the pharaoh), with each person getting paid only a portion, perhaps just enough to feed himself and his family.  There was also the added stress that the pharaoh could call on a peasant at any time to become a warrior to fight in a war, or to act as a slave to build monuments and temples for the gods, or pyramids for the pharaohs themselves..

At first these monuments were built of mud-brick that could be washed away over time, yet ultimately, perhaps sometimes around 2600 B.C., perhaps during the inundation when there was lots of time to think, great minds came together and invented a material for making bigger monuments to the gods, and great pyramids for the pharaohs to begin their journey to the afterlife.

As they worked on these projects they discovered and invented better tools and methods of building, and this probably lead to even better material for managing the waters.  Or, perhaps, the ideas for building such great monuments came from their projects to control the Nile waters.

And the person given credit for this was the Pharaoh, or a scribe such as Imhotep, or one of the gods, or perhaps a Pharaoh or scribe who ultimately became legend, and thus, a god.

To be continued...

References:  See "4000-30 B.C.: 'The Black Land' creates mighty civilization, part 4"

4000-30 B.C.: 'Black Land' creates mighty civilization, part 2

(Read "Black Land" Part 1 here)

So the most significant gift of the Nile was that it flooded the lands, up to six miles on either side, with water, vegetation, and fertile mud or "rich black silt," and it was for this reason that the land became fertile. This fertile land, coupled with the winter and spring sun, allowed various crops to grow in the area, (Shuter, page 6-7) attracting both animals and men to the area sometime around 9000 B.C.  It was this land, this "Fertile Crescent," that drew humans of various families and clans together.  These people grew to love and appreciate the Nile River, often referencing Egypt as "the gift of the Nile," or "the gift of the river," and the river as "The Great River."

Despite the gifts of the Nile, the Egyptians still had to worry about flooding.  If the floods were too high mud-brick homes and resources needed to grow crops were washed away, and if the floods were too low not enough land was watered, and this lead to famine, that sometimes lasted for several years. (Sigerist, page 220)

After flooding wiped away crops and homes enough times, the people gathered together sometime around the early days of Egypt, and they put their minds together to learn how to better manage the waters. So even the flooding, even the destruction caused the river, ended up being "the gift of the Nile" as it forced people to work together. This was similar to what occurred for people living along the Tigris and Euphrates.

Unlike the random and violent flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates, however, the Nile flooding could be predicted. Egyptians learned to mark the edge of the Nile, and, as the years passed, they learned to regulate the days with the appearance of the stars in the sky, and learned that the floods come "with the heliacal rising of Sothis or Sirius, that is, the first day when the Star was seen rising in the East above the horizon after its conjunction with the sun," said Sigerist.  They learned a year was 365 days, and later that it was 365 and a quarter days.   (Sigerist, page 221)  They used this knowledge to make a calender of 12 months and 30 days in a month and five extra days.

It didn't take long to learn that they occurred from mid-July to October of each year.  Yet why this flooding occurred remained a mystery.  There were many theories, although perhaps the most widespread, the most rational explanation, was the theory that the floods occurred due to the "tears of Isis weeping over the loss of her husband, Osiris?" said Henry Sigerist  in his 1951 history of medicine. (Sigerist, page 218)

Perhaps one of the main reason why the cause of the flooding remained a mystery was because of stretches along the river that are covered by rocks, around which the water is shallow and flows rapidly.  These areas were called cataracts. Egyptians learned to use the river to travel from one city to another, mainly because the water usually flowed smoothly.  However, to get around the cataracts they had to remove their boats from the water and walk them around the cataracts.  (Kobasa, page 7)  Perhaps it was for this reason they were prevented from traveling to the source of the river to determine the cause of the flooding.

While they didn't learn the cause of flooding, they did learn that they could plant and harvest crops between the floods, and when the flooding was going on, they banded together in a dry area and they had their annual celebrations. During these celebrations they worshiped their gods, and thanked them for the crops and the Nile flooding.  They also had time for leisure and for thinking.  No Egyptians labored while the flooding was occurring, and perhaps this was when they put their minds together to create better methods of controlling the water.  They celebrated nature, while in Mesopotamia nature was feared. (Sigerist, page 220)

The Egyptians were among the first people to recognize the importance of rest.  For this reason they used certain religious days as days of rest, and they also allowed rest on the Sabbath day, the seventh day of the week.  These were days of rest and celebration.  Most peasants also took a break in the middle of the day, where they ate and drank.  These breaks were short, although it allowed time for the workers to regain some of their energy so they could continue the work of the gods (or the work of the aristocracy so they could continue to live lavish lifestyles).

After years of experience, Egyptians learned to build dykes, dams, canals, basins and sluices to control the flow of water through the land. (Sigerist, page 220) They learned better methods of planting and harvesting crops. They learned that when they did this they could make a lot of food in a small area.  Due to this, there no longer was a need to be hunters and gathers.  This gave people free time to think, share ideas, and discover and invent material things that made life better for everyone.  It would take another six thousand years, but this would ultimately lead to better medicine.

So the ancient Egyptians put their minds together.  Yes! Great things happen when human minds work together.  Not only did this result in greater methods of controlling irrigation, it also resulted in a revolution of ideas, discoveries and inventions.  As the Sumerians discovered methods of improving weaving and making pottery, the Egyptians invented a method of making impressive temples and pyramids for the gods and pharaohs they worshiped. These ideas were improved upon as the years passed, and were shared with other civilizations.

They learned to make homes of mud-brick, reeds and straw.  And while the homes of the average citizen were made of such perishable material, material that sometimes washed completely away during the inundation, sometime around 2700 or 2600 B.C. great minds produced a material for making some of the worlds first stone pyramids, many of which still amaze people to this day, impressed upon the skyline of mighty Egypt.

Like Sumerians, Egyptians created ideas about the world around them, about what happened before birth, and after death.  They created religions replete with a hierarchy of gods who were like humans, although way more powerful.  The Egyptian religion was a bit more hopeful than the one created by the Sumerians, who had a gloomy view of life and death due to fear of violent and random flooding, invaders and evil spirits and demons.

Egyptians had natural borders to protect them.  In the east there was the Red Sea, in the north the Mediterranean Sea.  There was desert in the east and west, and the intense heat of the heavens and red sand tried to kill anyone who crossed. In the south there was rocky lands that made it difficult to cross.  In the north was a coastline, that meant there were treacherous waters that had to be crossed. Invasion of Egypt was difficult, and therefore Egyptians felt well protected by the gods. They felt secure, had less to cure, and were more optimistic. (Sigerist, page 223)

Surely most people died and went to nothingness, but some people, especially people of importance, poeple from the aristocracy, had a chance to travel to the afterlife and live among the gods with riches of gold and jewels and slaves and everything that went with the good life.  Even if the commoners thought they may not have an afterlife, at least they felt solace in doing their part of the labor to help their pharaoh get there

To be continued...

References: See "4000-30 B.C.: 'The Black Land' creates mighty civilization, part 4"

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