2000 B.C.: Chaldeans introduce physicians to Babylon

Chaldeans introduced astronomy/ medicine to ancient Mesopotamians?

Various groups of people continued to emigrate into Mesopotamia even as the Sumerian civilization was fading. Among these were the Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, Akkadians and Arabs. Some of these matured to form villages, towns, cities, empires and even civilizations. Yet it was another group of people who had the greatest impact on medicine: the Chaldeans (Chaldees). (Baas page 25)

No one knows when they emigrated into the area, although many speculate they came from the north. The Hebrew Bible says they came from the "extremities of the earth," which may be Armenia, Cephenin, and Arrapachitis. Job mentions gold, and Jeremiah the iron of the north. It's also believed they left their homeland (and nobody knows why) over a century before they landed in Babylonia and Persia, or "before they besieged Jerusalem." (Asiatic Journal, page 36-37)

As time went by they were assimilated into Babylonian and Persian society to the point that they were often referred to as Babylonians and Persians, as opposed to Chaldeans. (Asiatic Journal, page 36-37) 

The dominant element of their way of life "consisted of servants to the deity," (Baas, page 25) and they are even referred to in the Bible as the "Magi" or the "Wise men," or "haruspices."  (Asiatic Journal, page 37)(Baas, page 25)

Magi or wise men were magicians, priests who were proficient in all the knowledge of the universe.  They specialized in mythology, religion, and medicine.  They were, perhaps, the most well educated people among society, and they were, in essence, magicians.

Haruspices, according to Britanicca.com, refers to the study of organs, such as the liver, and astronomical phenomenon, such as thunderstorms, lightning, alignment of stars, planets, comets, etc.  This was all done for the purpose of divination, or predicting the future.

The Chaldeans were known for their knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, astrology, interpretations of dreams, and medicine. Some referred to them simply as "skygazers."

Perhaps by gazing at the stars they developed the first calendars based on the phases of the moon.  Perhaps they are the ones who introduced Babylonians and Persians to a numerical system based on the number 60.  This system included the 360 degree circle, 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and so forth. They are also sometimes credited as helping the Babylonians advance mathematics, astronomy, astrology and medicine. 

Henry Sigerist, in his 1922 history of medicine, said that ancient societies did not study the sky because they were interested in the alignment of the planets, stars, comets, etc. What they were interested in was interpreting the words of the gods, and this alignment, so they thought, was how the gods communicated. It was the job of the Chaldean priests, and later the Babylonian priests, to interpret astrological signs. (Sigerist, page 392)

Or, as William Osler wrote in his history of medicine:

A belief that the stars in their courses fought for or against him arose early in their civilizations, and directly out of their studies on astrology and mathematics. The Macrocosm, the heavens that “declare the glory of God,” reflect, as in a mirror, the Microcosm, the daily life of man on earth. (Osler, page 24)

As they themselves were, their knowledge and culture were assimilated into Babylonian culture, and this is how medicine evolved into a science of divination through astrology and hepatoscopy in ancient Babylonia, or so it is believed. (Baas, page 25)(Sigerist, 392)

Actually, not only were the Chaldean Priest known for their astrology and hepatoscopy, they were also known for their herbal remedies and incantations. In fact, it was probably due to the Chaldean Priests that the Babylonians became well known for their poisons. (Baas, ?)

Babylonian medicine was initially referred to as poison because it was used for its poisonous effects, which sometimes included killing people who were not wanted.  It was this effect, some believe, that gave Babylonian medicine, at least initially, a bad name.  Perhaps for this reason most physicians were seen as bad people, and for this reason they worked behind the scenes.

Perhaps this was among the reasons that when the Greek historian Herodotus traveled through Mesopotamia, he wrote that "they have no physicians."  Various historians have noted ample evidence that there were, especially after the assimilation of the Chaldeans.

RT Cave Facebook Page
RT Cave on Twitter

3000 B.C.: The baru will predict your future

This is the oldest known Sumerian Medical book.
The Baru  memorized remedies and incantations,
many of which are recorded in texts like this.
(drhajar.org: Arabian Gulf: Cradle of Medicine)

Divination is the interpretation of omens or signs to predict the future.  Most ancient societies, from Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient India, Ancient China and Ancient Rome, all believed in omens.  And there were good and bad omens.  (1,2)

You were sick.  You have sinned.  You are impure.  You are in disharmony with the world.  You are a burden on society.  You are unclean.  So you must go to see a healer, who in most cases was a priest, for healing.

Since your disease, your symptoms, was caused by magic, you needed a magical cure.  The healer would give you an incantation incantation to site to ward off the evil.  Although, if you could afford it, he'd use a divination to learn how you got sick in the first places, as this was how the best cures came about.  .

Through divination a priest might learn that the ailment could easily be cured, and this made you optimistic, or gave  you hope.

On the other hand, however, the priest might learn that your illness is futile that that you will die, and in that case fill you with gloom and pessimism.

A healer could predict success in wartime, and inspire soldiers.  Or they could predict a loss, and therefore cause resignation among soldiers.

Priests who offered divination were called baru, the diviner.  They were specially trained in the divination.  They asked you questions:  Did a bird cross your path.  If it did, was it to the left or right.  If you saw birds flying to your left when you broke your foot the birds brought back luck.  This was no coincidence.  You were cursed.  The remedy was to chant this incantation or to put this amulet on a chain around your neck, or over your doorway or window.(2)

There were other means of getting omens, depending on how much you could afford.  Probably the most expensive, yet most revealing, would be to have a baru examine the liver of a sacrificed animal. 

By studying the liver, most often by sacrificed animals such as sheep, the baru could learn much about the future.  According to Henry Osler in his series of lectures at Yale University in 1913:

Of all the organs inspected in a sacrificial animal, the liver, from its size, position and richness in blood, impressed the early observers as the most important of the body.  Probably on account of the richness in blood it came to be regarded as the seat of life --- indeed, the seat of the soul.

The liver to the Babylonians was similar to the heart to the modern world:  it was the soul of life; the center of vitality.  "Hepatoscopy," Osler said, "thus became, among the Babylonians, of extraordinary complexity, and the organ of the sheep was studies and figured as early as 3000 B.C.  In the divination rites, the lobes, the gall bladder, the appendages of the upper lobe and the markings were all inspected with unusual care."

Readings:  gallbladder... liver....

Cheaper methods would be to drop oil over water and watch what happened.  Or a flame was lit and the flickering was examined, conclusions drawn.

Knowledge that the baru had was esoteric.  Many religious texts ended in...

May he who knows instruct him who knows.  And may he who knows not read this." (2, page 433)

And...

He who does not keep the secret will not remain in health -- His days will be shortened." (2, page 433)

There were other similar sayings, although the meaning was relatively the same.

References:

1. Osler, William, "Evolution of Modern Medicine: a series of lectures at Yale University to the Silliman Foundation in April 1913, 1921", New haven, Yale University Press, pages 18-19
2. Sigerist, Henry E., A history of medicine," 1955, 2nd edition, volume 1, pages 453-5, 433

RT Cave Facebook Page
RT Cave on Twitter

5000-2000 B.C.: Sumerian rituals prevent asthma

Map of Sumeria compliments of Wikepedia. 

Around 5000 B.C. the Sumerians were a growing society in ancient Mesopotamia, and by 4000 B.C. they were the most abundant group of people in the world. 

From the beginning of their existence they worked to create the cornerstones necessary for the formation of a civilization, which included a written language, a system of mathematics, a mythological world, and even a system of medicine.   

The exact date as to which they formed this first civilization is a matter of debate. Some say by 3500 B.C. they had the necessary ingredients, although some suggest a better date would be 3200 B.C., which would have been about the time cuneiform was established as a system of writing.  Regardless, the Sumerians are often credited as forming the first civilization as many of the systems they created helped shape later civilizations, including our own.

The basic tenant of a civilization was that by people working together more could be accomplished.  By all people working together for the collective, this allowed for kings and queens and those working among the small aristocracy free time to think and to create. 

Perhaps it was due to this that the Sumerians were, according to Henry Sigerist in his 1922 history of medicine, able to create a culture that lasted for thousands of years.  

Even after Sumerian civilization ceased to exist, much of what it created continued to be used for several thousand more years, some even to this day.  For example, Sigerest notes the following: (Sigerist, page 284)

Another map of ancient Mesopotamia. 

"Their (the Sumerians) cuneiform script was taken over by the Semites in the north and other peoples, and was used for the writing of a number of different languages.  They began a new month with every new moon, adding an extra month to the year from time to time.  The calendar of the oriental Jews and of the Mohammedans is still based on the moon year.  Their numeral unit was 60 and we still divide the hour into 60 minutes, the circle into 360 degrees."  (10, 384)

Since their boundaries were far more open than the Egyptians, their culture spread not only to the various tribes existing in Mesopotamia, but also to Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and far beyond Western Asia, and probably even India and China.  These societies assimilated not only Sumerian culture, but their science, theology, and medicine. (10, pages 380, 384)

It must be understood that Sumerians had a very gloomy view of life and death, and their goal was basically to continue the ebb and flow of life  This view evolved, perhaps, because they were not concerned with the after life, which mainly consisted of "Shoel, or hell," said J.M. Roberts in his 1999 book "Prehistory and the first Civilizations."  (4, page 85)

"Yet at least one ritual involved virtual suicide," Robert's explains, "for a Sumerian king and queen of the middle of the third millennium were followed to their tombs by their attendants who were then buried with them, perhaps after taking some soporific drink.  This could suggest that the dead were going somewhere where a great retinue and gorgeous jewelry would be as important as on earth."   (1, page 85)

Perhaps one of the first cornerstones of a society was to create a mythology whereby there was life after death.  Perhaps this was the realization that came from observing all the pessimism that resulted from the people knowing there was nothing after death.

So, over time, to improve morale in an otherwise pessimistic world, Sumerian leaders created a mythological world of gods, demons and spirits.  These mythological figures controlled every aspect of human life, even deciding who moved on to hell, or who moved on to some better world.

These views culminated in a the belief that all sickness and injuries were the result of the gods, or were punishments handed down for improper behavior.  In other words, if you got sick it was your own fault. An example may be seen in the following passage:

Go forth, lead her forth to suffer her punishment; disease of the eyes, of the hips, of the feet, of the heart, shall strike her. (2, page 28)

There were methods of treating the sick and injured, all of which involved magic. There was an array of herbs and incantations to help you.  Yet the Sumerians believed if you got sick you were probably doomed, so their main emphasis was on prevention.  

For this reason, the priests were responsible for holding rituals at the various temples to the gods.  Each individual could perform rituals as well, and these smaller rituals were performed at various smaller temples. 

Roberts explains that "these gods demanded propitiation and submission in elaborate ritual.   In return for this and for living a good life they would grant prosperity and length of days, but not more.   (4, page 83-84)

Roberts also notes that:

No other ancient society at that time gave religion quite so prominent a place or diverted so much of its collective resources to its support.  It has been suggested that this was because no other ancient society left humans feeling so utterly dependent on the will of the gods (4, page 83-84)

Sumerian medicine, and later Babylonian medicine, pretty much involved placing the sick in the streets and every person who walked by was required to ask what was ailing the invalid. As noted by the great Greek historian Herodotus:

"They bring their sick to the market place, for they do not employ physicians. The passer-by approaches the patient and questions him concerning the sickness with which he is afflicted, to know if he himself has suffered in the same way or has seen any one so suffer. All those who go and come confer with him and suggest the remedy which has cured them of the same disease, or which to their knowledge has cured others similarly affected. No one is permitted to pass by the patient without interrogating him concerning his sickness."

In this way, however, there were no physicians per se, as Herodotus noted. Although, in actuality, every Mesopotamian citizen was a physician of sorts, with some being more proficient at it than others.  The same was noted by a Hebrew prophet:

Is it nothing of you, all that passby.  Behold and see, whether there be any pain like mine. (1, page 17)

However, Sigerist notes that there is a ton of evidence that there were physicians in every civilization of ancient Mesopotamia, and that they were mainly priests who cured by their magic. (3, page 425)  

I describe the Mesopotamian physician in 2000-539 B.C.: Assyro-Babyonian physicains.

Even despite the effort to improve upon the psychological well-being of an otherwise gloomy society, the effort must have been fleeting.  By seeing death and destruction frequently during the course of their daily lives, it would be an onerous task to change the spirits of an otherwise disconsolate society.  

It was eminent that such a gloomy view of life could not sustain a society, and ultimately, sometime around 3000 B.C., Sumerian civilization became weak and faded into oblivion.  

However, the seeds that formed Sumerian civilization continued to grow, and they benefited the next civilizations that formed between the two rivers.  

References:  See post "4000-539 B.C.: First civilizations advance medicine, part 4""

RT Cave Facebook Page
RT Cave on Twitter