1500: The quest for the philosopher's stone

An alchemist in search of the philosopher's stone in his laboratory.

If you lived with asthma in the medieval world, during the 16th or 17th centuries, perhaps you believed in the power of the philosopher's stone, or that by working ardently in their laboratories an alchemist would discover a substance that would heal all sickness, and offer eternal life with vast riches and unlimited wisdom.

To understand about the philosophers stone we have to travel back in time to the beginning of the world, to a time when the gods realized they were tired of living alone and were eager to create a planet and populate it with people to keep them company. One god had the power to take the four basic elements -- fire, earth, water and air -- to form the sun and all the planets.

He was called Thoth in ancient Egypt, Hermes Trismegistos in ancient Greece, and Mercury in ancient Rome.  He was the messenger to the gods and had access to all the wisdom of the world, and therefore was the first philosopher.  While he was a god in mythology, it's also possible he was an actual person at one time, only turned into a god by his legacy.

As secretary to the gods, he had access to all the wisdom of the heavens.  As messenger, he had the ability to communicate with philosophers on earth. Perhaps the first people he communicated with were the ancient Egyptians, of whom we find our first evidence that alchemy and chemistry was practiced.

As we learned earlier in this history, the term "khemi" comes from the Egyptian term for 'the black earth,' which is in reference to the black soil of the great Nile River.  Yet the terms 'al' and 'khemi' are Arabic terms.  (7, page 21-22)

It was by communicating with the god Thoth, Egyptian philosophers were able to learn all the wisdom of the god.  In this way, they learned the esoteric wisdom necessary to blend various substances in order to create an elixir of life.  It was also by this process that lead to many of the medicines used by Egyptian priest/physicians.  They, in essence, became the first chemists and alchemists.

Through the ancient philosophers Thoth wrote 40 books filled with all the knowledge that he was willing to share.  Since they called him Hermes, the Greeks referred to these writings as the Hermetic Books.  Since they were thought to have been written on an emerald tablet, some refer to them as the 'emerald tablet.'

Regardless, the pages of the Hermetic books contained the wisdom Thoth/Hermes/Mercury used to create the cosmos.  While the book is lost, it is thought that this first philosopher used the four basic elements and combined: (5, page 28)

• Philosophical Salt, which is all wisdom
• Mercury, which is personal skill and application
• Sulphur, which is vital energy and fire of will (5, page 28)(4, page 366)

These primordial substances are often referred to as "the substances of the philosophers and not those commonly designed by these names, said Grillot de Givry, in his 1931 book "Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy." (4, page 365)

No one knew what was formed by combining these three substances. Since many thought it was stone, it's often referred to as the philosopher's stone. Yet some thought it was a powdery substance used to create a magical elixir, an elixir of life, that would turn basic items into precious items, base metals -- such as copper, aluminum, cobalt, iron and lead -- into precious gold. It would reveal all wisdom, and heal all wounds, and cure all sickness, and create immortality.

Alchemists believed that by working arduously in their laboratories mixing this chemical and that chemical, perhaps by heating them in their athenor (type of furnace that was capable of maintaining a uniform and durable heat for a long time, according to merriam-webster.com), they would ultimately create a natural environment for a substance similar to the philosopher's stone to form.

After the Arabs conquered Egypt in the 7th century A.D., they absorbed all the Egyptian knowledge of chemistry and alchemy. During the 11th century, European crusaders returned to Europe with Arabic wisdom, including knowledge of alchemy and the quest for the philosopher's stone. (7, page 247)

The stone, or powder, or whatever the primordial substance was, captured the imaginations of some of Europe's most impressive minds, including Paracelsus, Roger Bacon, Pope John XXII, Jon Baptiste van Helmont, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton, and Raymond Lilly, among others.

Because these men must have worked as alchemists sureptitiously, they are often known as chemists. Either way, many went on to make significant contributions to both science and medicine.

Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was one of the early alchemists who lived in England. He performed many experiments and made many discoveries for the medical community, although what held him back, and created angst among the orthodoxy, was the belief that he was also dealing in magic and the black arts. As with other alchemists, he was also a believer in the philosopher's stone. While it was a challenge, he did manage to get his ideas published. (3, page 112-113)

Paracelsus (1493-1541) was an alchemist who believed all other elements -- earth, fire, water and air -- were derived from this element that was yet to be found, and the mysterious element was indeed the philosopher's stone.

While some chemists openly dabbled in alchemy as Bacon and Paracelsus did, some secretly dabbled in order to avoid the risks associated with being accused of dealing in magic, the black arts, or witchcraft.

Fielding Hudson Garrison, in his book "An introduction to the history of medicine," said:

Although the making of gold and silver and other magic practices was opposed by the Church in the famous bulls , "Spondent pariter" (1317) and "Super ittius specula" (1326) of (Pope) John XXII, alchemy became an intensive cult of extraordinary magnitude in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, because it appealed particularly to the lust of money, the love of life, and the corresponding fear of death. For the philosopher's stone, otherwise known as "the quintessence" or "grand magistery" was not only supposed to transmute the baser metals into gold, make precious stones and a universal solvent, but also conferred perfect health and length of days. It was described by all who claimed to have seen it as of a reddish luster. Raymond Lully (1232-1315) called it a carbuncle; Paracelsus likened it to a ruby; Berigard de Pisa, to a wild poppy with the smell of heated sea-salt; van Helmont, to saffron with the luster of glass. The choral symphony in praise of its capacity for maintaining health resembled the testimonials of "Vin Mariani" and other nostrums of our time. (1, page 286)

While alchemists used elements of chemistry, the art was essentially based on mythology and magic. This was why the Church opposed the art, thus punishing those accused of practicing alchemy, including those who admitted to searching for the pagan philosopher's stone, as these were the antithesis of Biblical beliefs.

Grillot de Givry said:

Through the whole of the Middle Ages and down to about the end of the seventeenth century -- even later in Germany, Spain, and Italy -- sorcerers were vilified, persecuted, and hunted down.  It was thought that the worst of punishments were reserved for them in eternity, and the tale ran that the Devil was often to be seen seizing a witch when her promised period of grace had run out, and carrying her off to the place in Hell she had undoubtedly earned." (4, page 195) 

If you had asthma during this period, a time when there were no true remedies for your disease, would it be worth risking eternal damnation to search for it, or would it be better to deal with it as best you can while worshiping the Bible under the hope of eternal comfort in Heaven?

References:

1. Garrison, Fielding Hudson, "Introduciton to the history of medicine," 1922, London, W.B. Saunders Company
2. "Dr. Anderson's, or the famous Scot's Pills," http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/10552/pages/2/page.pdf
3. Bradford, Thomas Lindsley, writer, Robert Ray Roth, editor, “Quiz questions on the history of medicine from the lectures of Thomas Lindley Bradford M.D.,” 1898, Philadelphia, Hohn Joseph McVey
4. deGivry, Grillot, "Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy," translated by J. Courtenay Locke, 1931, 1971, New York, Dover Publications, Inc
5. Swinburne, Clymer, "Alchemy and the Alchemists," volume 3, 1907, PA, The Philosophical Publishing Co.
6. Anonymous, "The Book of Acquarius: Alchemy and the Sorcerers Stone,"
7. Regardie, Israel, edited by Chic Cicero and Sandra Tabatha Cicero, "The Philosopher's Stone: Spiritual Alchemy, Psychology, and Ritual Magic," 2013, MN, Llewellyn Publications

RT Cave Facebook Page

RT Cave on Twitter

1530: The bellows of Paracelsus

Paracelsus was perhaps the first to use bellows
to provide artificial breaths to an unconscious
person.  (2, p

The next person in our history to experiment with the use of bellows in performing artificial breaths was a man called Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, and who became better known as Parecelsus.

He was born in Maria Einiedeln near Zurich in 1493 to a physician who instructed him in his path to becoming a physician, including alchemy, astrology, and medicine. Then he traveled the world, visiting all the sages thereof, in order to hone in his skills. (5, pages 82-83)

By the age of 32 he returned home and "became famous for his cures," said Thomas Bradford. At the age of 33 he had cured thirteen princes who had been declared hopeless by the Galenic physicians. As a result of this, he was made professor of physic and surgery in the University of Basle in the year 1526." (5, page 83)

Paracelsus is perhaps among the more interesting men in our history of respiratory therapy, although his contribution is almost insignificant.  Yet if we could imagine for a moment if the ability to control electricity existed during his time, it's possible he could have invented the first method of performing artificial breaths to an unconscious patient.

Medical historian Pierre-Frances Renouard , in his 1867 history of medicine, explains that Paracelsus was born in Switzerland to a physician who provided a basic medical education to his son. His father then "made him travel, according to the custom of the scholastics of those times, to visit the universities and hear the most celebrated professors. But instead of frequenting the schools, young Paracelsus sought the conversation of clever women, barbers, renovators, magicians, alchymists, in whose society he boasted he had obtained valuable secrets."  (1, page 358-360)

Between the ages of 25 and 30 it is said that he spent most of his time drinking wine and socializing, although he must have obtained quite a bit of medical knowledge as well, because by the time he was was "admired by every one as a second Esculapius." (1, page 358-360)

He became among the believers who lived during the renaissance that what was taught by ancient writers such as Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna was poppycock and quack medicine and he was among those who aimed to prove them wrong. (1, page 358-360)

He believed medicine should be taught and performed based on observation at the patient's bedside and not on antiquated textbooks. (reference) He was even known to toss those old texts into the fire. (1, page 358-360)

Renouard explains:

He had just been called to Basle to fill the chair of Physic and Surgery. A crowd of curious and idle persons, and of enthusiasts attended his first lectures. The thaumaturgist, in order to astonish his auditors, commenced by burning the works of Galen and Avicenna; then he began to read and develope his own writings, breaking off from time to time in declamations of this kind: “ Know, ye doctors, that my hat knows more than you—that my beard has more experience than your academies. Greeks, Latins, Arabs French, Italians, Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, you must follow me; I shall not follow you, for I am your monarch, and sovereignty belongs to me 1”  (1, page 359-360)(also see 5, page 83)

Bradford added:

All this soon lost him the esteem of the people.  He was said not to have regularly graduated.  He became a great drinker, a thorough drunkard.  This was the habit of the time, however, and drinking bouts to see who could drink the most were very common, even among the high born.  (5, page 84)

Some say he was so drunk he didn't even dress himself, and went to sleep at night with his sword, only to wake up in the night walking around with it "to the great alarm" of those around him.  Others say he only drank enough to "stimulate his mind."  (5, page 84)

Regardless, Bradford said that regardless of where he went "he regarded the regular faculty to hatred by his pretend or real cures and his unmitigated contempt for the doctors and their systems... He now cast nativities, told fortunes, aided those who had money to burn to find the philosopher's stone, prescribed remedies for cows and pigs, and aided in the recovery of stolen goods." (5, pages 84-85)

When he wasn't busy drinking and socializing, he studied.  Among his studies he would have read the works of Hippocrates and Galen, and learned that Hippocrates described inserting a reed tube into the neck of a person suffocating due to an upper airway obstruction.  He would have known that Galen likewise acknowledged the procedure, and described inflating lungs with bellows. He also would have known of Paul of Aegineta, who perfected the procedure, which he referred to as bronchotomy.

So Paracelsus had some basic airway knowledge he attempted to expound upon.  Although, unlike many of his predecessors, he believed rather than just make things up based on observation, one must perform experiments to prove or disprove ideas.   J.L. Price, in his 1962 article "The evolution of breathing machines," explains:

The first mechanical refinement of mouth to mouth resuscitation was attributed to Paracelsus, who in 1530 inserted the nozzle of fireside bellows into the nostrils of apnoeic patients and rhythmically inflated their lungs. The bellows used were said to have been fouled by cinders and Paracelsus had little success with their gestures."  (2, page 67)

He therefore was the first that we are aware of to document experimentation with bellows to perform artificial respiration.  Unfortunately his experiments didn't work.

His death was almost as controversial as his life.  Some say he died in 1541 of natural causes, while other say he "he was drinking in an inn," said Bradford, "and disputing with a doctor, when he so excited the doctor to wrath that he ordered his servants to pitch the boaster and quack from the window; this was done and his neck was broken from the fall." (5, page 85)

References:

1. Renouard, Pierre-Victor, writer, Cornelius G. Comegys, translator, "History of medicine: from its origin to the nineteenth century," 1867, Philadelphia, Lindsay and Blakiston
2. Price, J.L., "The Evolution of Breathing Machines," Medical History, 1962, January, 6(1), pages 67-72; Price references The Bible, Kings, 4: 34
3. Tan, S.Y, et al, "Medicine in Stamps:  Paracelsus (1493-1541): The man who dared," Singapore Medical Journal,  2003, vol. 44 (1), pages 5-7
4. "Resuscitation and Artificial Respiration," freewebs.com, Scientific Anti-Vivisectionism,  
5. Bradford, Thomas Lindsley, writer, Robert Ray Roth, editor, “Quiz questions on the history of medicine from the lectures of Thomas Lindley Bradford M.D.,” 1898, Philadelphia, Hohn Joseph McVey

RT Cave Facebook Page
RT Cave on Twitter